Inorganic contaminants and micronutrients in foods consumed by the vegetarian Portuguese population

Abstract

Aim: The present study aimed to determine the profile of micronutrients and inorganic contaminants in the plant-based and dairy food products most consumed by the Portuguese population. Methods: The sampling plan followed the Total Diet Studies (TDS) methodology and included representative samples of the Portuguese vegetarian diet, chosen based on the National Food and Physical Activity Survey. Five main food groups were selected: Grains and grain-based products (n = 48); Dairy products (n = 60); Products for non-standard diets (n = 72); Pulses, dried fruits, and oilseeds (n = 132); and Fruiting vegetables (n = 12). The sampling plan included 324 individual samples, prepared as 27 pooled samples for laboratory analyses. Each pooled sample was analyzed for 13 elements: As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, I, Li, Mn, Mo, Pb, Se, Sr, and Zn. The methodology used for the analysis was ICP-MS with samples previously subjected to acid digestion through closed vessel microwave-assisted, except for I, which required an alkaline extraction. Results: The results of this study indicate that food samples from the group of Pulses, dried fruits, and oilseeds had the highest content of Mn, Zn, Mo, and Se. On the other hand, Products for non-standard diets and Dairy products had the highest content of Cu and I, respectively. The As, Cd, and Pb levels were below the limit of quantification for most of the analyzed samples from every food group. Conclusions: This research enabled updating the Portuguese Food Composition Database (FCD), underscoring the importance of regular dietary assessments and the role of FCDs and TDS in safeguarding public health by ensuring nutritional adequacy and safety in the food supply.

Keywords

Vegetarian diet / Total Diet Study / inorganic contaminants / micronutrients / plant-based products / dairy products / ICP-MS

References

[1] Melina V, Craig W, Levin S. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016; 116: 1970-80.

[2] McEvoy CT, Temple N, Woodside JV. Vegetarian diets, low—meat diets and health: a review. Public Health Nutr. 2012; 15: 2287—94.

[3] Moy GG, Vannoort RW, editors. Total Diet Studies. New York: Springer; 2013.

[4] European Food Safety Authority; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; World Health Organization. Towards a harmonised Total Diet Study approach: a guidance document. EFSA J. 2011; 9: 2450.

[5] Vasco E, Dias MG, Oliveira L. The first harmonised total diet study in Portugal: Planning, sample collection and sample preparation. Food Chem. 2021; 363: 130258.

[6] Greenfield H, Southgate DAT. Food Composition Data: Production, Management and Use. Rome: FAO; 2003.

[7] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for copper. EFSA J. 2015; 13; 4253.

[8] Fuge R, Johnson CC. Iodine and human health, the role of environmental geochemistry and diet, a review. Appl Geochem. 2015; 63: 282-302.

[9] Rohner F, Zimmermann M, Jooste P, Pandav C, Caldwell K, Raghavan R, et al. Biomarkers of nutrition for development——iodine review. J Nutr. 2014; 144: 1322S-42S.

[10] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for molybdenum. EFSA J. 2013; 11: 3333.

[11] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for manganese. EFSA J. 2013; 11: 3419.

[12] Ganger R, Garla R, Mohanty BP, Bansal MP, Garg ML. Protective Effects of Zinc Against Acute Arsenic Toxicity by Regulating Antioxidant Defense System and Cumulative Metallothionein Expression. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2016; 169: 218—29.

[13] Jihen EH, Imed M, Fatima H, Abdelhamid K. Protective effects of selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) on cadmium (Cd) toxicity in the liver of the rat: effects on the oxidative stress. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2009; 72: 1559-64.

[14] EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). Dietary Reference Values for nutrients Summary report. EFSA Supporting Publ. 2017: 14: e15121.

[15] Leufroy A, Noël L, Bouisset P, Maillard S, Bernagout S, Xhaard C, et al. Determination of total iodine in French Polynesian foods: method validation and occurrence data. Food Chem. 2015; 169: 134—40.

[16] Iodine status worldwide: WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency[Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; c2024 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241592001

[17] Szklarska D, Rzymski P. Is Lithium a Micronutrient? From Biological Activity and Epidemiological Observation to Food Fortification. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2019; 189: 18-27.

[18] Coelho I, Castanheira I, Bordado JM, Donard O, Silva JAL. Recent developments and trends in the application of strontium and its isotopes in biological related fields. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2017; 90: 45-61.

[19] Amata IA. Chromium in Livestock Nutrition: A Review. Glob Adv Res J Agric Sci. 2013; 2: 289-306.

[20] Bagheri S, Gholamhosseini A, Banaee M. Investigation of Different Nutritional Effects of Dietary Chromium in Fish: A Literature Review. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2023; 201: 2546—54.

[21] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for chromium. EFSA J. 2014; 12: 3845.

[22] EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP). Scientific Opinion on the use of cobalt compounds as additives in animal nutrition. EFSA J. 2009; 7: 1383.

[23] EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM). Scientific Opinion on Lead in Food. EFSA J. 2010; 8: 1570.

[24] EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), Arcella D, Cascio S, Gómez Ruiz JÁ. Scientific report on the chronic dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic. EFSA J. 2021; 19: 6380.

[25] European Food Safety Authority. Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population. EFSA J. 2012; 10: 2551.

[26] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2020. Toxicological profile for Lead[Internet]. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=96&tid=22

[27] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2012. Toxicological profile for Cadmium[Internet]. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=48&tid=15

[28] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2007. Toxicological profile for Arsenic[Internet]. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=22&tid=3

[29] Inquérito Alimentar Nacional e de Atividade Física, IAN—AF 2015—2016 : relatório de resultados[Internet]. Porto: Universidade do Porto; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://www.ian—af.up.pt/sites/default/files/IAN—AF%20Relat%C3%B3rio%20Resultados_0.pdf

[30] Scientific update on the iodine content of Portuguese foods[Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; c2018 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://alimentacaosaudavel.dgs.pt/activeapp2020/wp—content/uploads/2020/01/Scientific—update—on—the—iodine—content—of—Portuguese—Food—.pdf

[31] Ventura M, Cardoso C, Bandarra NM, Delgado I, Coelho I, Gueifão S, et al. Effect of season and proximate composition on the Br, As, Cd and Pb contents in different kinds of key foods consumed in Portugal. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2020; 55: 2219—31.

[32] Pité M, Pinchen H, Castanheira I, Oliveira L, Roe M, Ruprich J, et al. Quality Management Framework for Total Diet Study centres in Europe. Food Chem. 2018; 240: 405—14.

[33] Delgado I, Ventura M, Gueifão S, Coelho I, Nascimento AC, Silva JAL, et al. 12th IFDC 2017 special issue—Iodine, selenium and iron contents in Portuguese key foods as consumed. J Food Compos Anal. 2019; 79: 39-46.

[34] Foodstuffs—Determination of trace elements—Determination of iodine by ICP—MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry)[Internet]. BSI; c2007 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://img.antpedia.com/standard/files/pdfs_ora/20230612/bs/BS%20EN/BS%20EN%2015111—2007.pdf

[35] Foodstuffs—Determination of trace elements—Determination of arsenic, cadmium, mercury and lead in foodstuffs by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP—MS) after pressure digestion[Internet]. NSAI; c2009 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://shop.standards.ie/preview/98697176214.pdf?sku=874113_SAIG_NSAI_NSAI_2078226

[36] ISO/IEC 17025 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories[Internet]. Geneva: ISO; c2017 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/en/#iso:std:iso—iec:17025:ed—3:v1:en

[37] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for iodine. EFSA J. 2014; 12: 3660.

[38] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for selenium. EFSA J. 2014; 12: 3846.

[39] EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for zinc. EFSA J. 2014; 12: 3844.

[40] Food data, version 5.1 [Internet]. Lyngby: National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark; c2024 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://frida.fooddata.dk/?lang=en

[41] Australian Food Composition Database[Internet]. Lyngby: Food Standards Australia New Zealand; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://afcd.foodstandards.gov.au

[42] FoodData Central [Internet]. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/

[43] ANSES [Internet]. Maisons—Alfort: National Agency for Health Safety, Food, Environment and Work (ANSES)— Ciqual French Food Composition Table; c2020 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://ciqual.anses.fr

[44] Fineli [Internet]. Helsinki: Finish Institute for Health and Welfare; c2024 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://fineli.fi/fineli/en/index?

[45] Hargreaves SM, Raposo A, Saraiva A, Zandonadi RP. Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021; 18: 4067.

[46] Groufh—Jacobsen S, Hess SY, Aakre I, Folven Gjengedal EL, Blandhoel Pettersen K, Henjum S. Vegans, Vegetarians and Pescatarians Are at Risk of Iodine Deficiency in Norway. Nutrients. 2020; 12: 3555.

[47] Gonzali S, Kiferle C, Perata P. Iodine biofortification of crops: agronomic biofortification, metabolic engineering and iodine bioavailability. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2017; 44: 16-26.

[48] Tolerable upper intake levels for vitamins and minerals[Internet]. European Food Safety Authority ; c2006 [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf

[49] IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

[50] Hokin B, Adams M, Ashton J, Louie H. Analysis of the cobalt content in Australian foods. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2004; 13: 284—8.

[51] Arnich N, Sirot V, Rivière G, Jean J, Noël L, Guérin T, et al. Dietary exposure to trace elements and health risk assessment in the 2nd French Total Diet Study. Food Chem Toxicol. 2012; 50: 2432—49.

[52] Watanabe T, Kataoka Y, Hayashi K, Matsuda R, Uneyama C. Dietary Exposure of the Japanese General Population to Elements: Total Diet Study 2013—2018. Food Saf (Tokyo). 2022; 10: 83-101.

[53] Lahhob QR, Al—Sanaf AE, Mohammed NY, Abbas HJ, Ibrahim ZJ, Najim MK, et al. Mineral and trace elements, dietary sources, biological effects, deficiency, and toxicity: a review. Eurasian Chem Commun. 2023; 5: 536-55.

[54] Udeh HO, Duodu KG, Jideani AIO. Effect of malting period on physicochemical properties, minerals, and phytic acid of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) flour varieties. Food Sci Nutr. 2018; 6: 1858—69.

[55] Toxicological Profile for Cobalt [Internet]. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR); [cited 2024 May 23]. Available from: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp33.pdf

[56] Iordache AM, Voica C, Roba C, Nechita C. Lithium Content and Its Nutritional Beneficence, Dietary Intake, and Impact on Human Health in Edibles from the Romanian Market. Foods. 2024; 13: 592.

[57] Paz S, Hardisson A, Guerra N, Gutiérrez AJ, González—Weller D, Fresno MDR, et al. Exposure to Metals from Artisanal Cheeses Made with Goat’s Milk. J Food Prot. 2018; 81: 1950—5.

[58] Lemire M, Fillion M, Barbosa F Jr, Guimarães JR, Mergler D. Elevated levels of selenium in the typical diet of Amazonian riverside populations. Sci Total Environ. 2010; 408: 4076—84.

[59] Bertoldi D, Cossignani L, Blasi F, Perini M, Barbero A, Pianezze S, et al. Characterisation and geographical traceability of Italian goji berries. Food Chem. 2019; 275: 585—93.