Bottlenecks-Breaking in Zinc-Iodine Batteries Toward Practical Implementation: A Review and Perspective

Abstract

Aqueous zinc–iodine batteries (Zn–I₂Bs) emerge as promising candidates for grid-scale energy storage due to their inherent safety, low cost, and environmental benignity. However, their practical deployment is hindered by critical challenges, including severe self-discharge driven by coupled polyiodide shutting and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), limited practical energy density constrained by low voltage plateaus and predominantly two-electron iodine redox, sluggish reaction kinetics from complex iodine species interconversion, and zinc anode instability (dendrites, corrosion, passivation). This work provides a comprehensive analysis of Zn–I₂B mechanisms, debating the interplay between iodine's layered structure favoring intercalation and its multivalency enabling conversion reactions, particularly pathways for electron redox beyond I⁻/I₂. Strategies to mitigate these challenges are critically reviewed: anchoring iodine species within tailored host materials (e.g., functionalized carbons, COFs, perovskites) to suppress shuttling; electrolyte engineering (e.g., DES, additives) to sequester free I⁻ and modulate solvation; functional separators/membranes for ion sieving; catalytic materials (transition metal/nonmetal-based) to accelerate kinetics; and anode protection/modification (interfacial layers, hydrogel electrolytes, nonmetallic anodes) to enhance reversibility. The review synthesizes recent advances, identifies persistent bottlenecks, and outlines future research directions essential for realizing the commercial potential of high-performance Zn–I₂Bs.

Keywords

iodine reduction reaction / multielectron transfer reaction / shuttle effect / zinc-iodine batteries

References

[1] Y. Cheng, L. Jin, H. Fu, Y. Fan, R. Bai, Y. Wei, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2024, 189, 114032.

[2] T. Kiss, S. Popovics, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 149, 111348.

[3] M. Linsenmeier, A. Mohommad, G. Schwerhoff, Nat. Clim. Chang. 2023, 13, 679.

[4] I. de la Parra, M. Muñoz, E. Lorenzo, M. García, J. Marcos, F. Martínez-Moreno, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 78, 780.

[5] P. Müller-Buschbaum, M. Thelakkat, T. F. Fässler, M. Stutzmann, Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 7, 1700248.

[6] M. Taylor, J. Pettit, T. Sekiyama, M. M. Sokołowski, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2023, 188, 113815.

[7] S. James, W. Christopher, R. Lauren, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 215, 115563.

[8] C. Milford, V. Martí, S. P. Neill, Renew. Energy 2025, 247, 122774.

[9] H. Zhang, X. Liu, X. Cao, N. Zhang, A. W.-K. Law, Energy 2025, 325, 136114.

[10] N. Effenberger, N. Ludwig, Wind Energy 2022, 25, 1659.

[11] M. Shoaib, I. Siddiqui, S. Rehman, S. Khan, L. M. Alhems, J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 216, 346.

[12] P. Veers, K. Dykes, E. Lantz, S. Barth, C. L. Bottasso, O. Carlson, A. Clifton, J. Green, P. Green, H. Holttinen, D. Laird, V. Lehtomäki, J. K. Lundquist, J. Manwell, M. Marquis, C. Meneveau, P. Moriarty, X. Munduate, M. Muskulus, J. Naughton, L. Pao, J. Paquette, J. Peinke, A. Robertson, J. Sanz Rodrigo, A. M. Sempreviva, J. C. Smith, A. Tuohy, R. Wiser, Science 2019, 366, 443.

[13] S. S. Foslie, B. R. Knudsen, S. Bjarghov, M. Korpås, Energy Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 8838.

[14] D. Gkontoras, N. A. Efkarpidis, J. Morren, H. Slootweg, H. Edin, Appl. Energy 2025, 383, 125254.

[15] G. Raman, Y. Yang, J. C.-H. Peng, Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 6451.

[16] J. Close, J. E. Barnard, Y. M. John Chew, S. Perera, J. Energy Chem. 2024, 92, 422.

[17] Z. Deng, Y. Liu, L. Wang, N. Fu, Y. Li, Y. Luo, J. Wang, X. Xiao, X. Wang, X. Yang, X. He, H. Zhang, Mater. Today 2023, 69, 236.

[18] A. Fatih Guven, A. Y. Abdelaziz, M. Mahmoud Samy, S. Barakat, Energy Conver. Manage. 2024, 312, 118560.

[19] T. Zhang, J. Yu, H. Guo, J. Qi, M. Che, M. Hou, P. Jiao, Z. Zhang, Z. Yan, L. Zhou, K. Zhang, J. Chen, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2024, 53, 12043.

[20] M. Jiang, D. L. Danilov, R. A. Eichel, P. H. L. Notten, Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2103005.

[21] J. Li, A. Azizi, S. Zhou, S. Liu, C. Han, Z. Chang, A. Pan, G. Cao, eScience 2025, 5, 100294.

[22] Z. Sida, G. Zichao, D. Honglei, Z. Xinan, Z. Yifan, M. Tianyi, M. Hai, L. Yubo, C. Fei, Y. Shichun, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 70, 103531.

[23] J. Xu, X. Cai, S. Cai, Y. Shao, C. Hu, S. Lu, S. Ding, Energy Environ. Mater. 2023, 6, e12450.

[24] M. Du, K. Li, N. Yu, Z. L. Hao, J. Z. Guo, H. J. Liang, Z. Y. Gu, X. H. Zhang, K. Y. Zhang, Y. Liu, J. L. Yang, Y. T. Liu, X. L. Wu, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2418219.

[25] J. L. Yang, X. X. Zhao, W. Zhang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202300258.

[26] J. Hou, L. Wang, X. Feng, J. Terada, L. Lu, S. Yamazaki, A. Su, Y. Kuwajima, Y. Chen, T. Hidaka, X. He, H. Wang, M. Ouyang, Energy Environ. Mater. 2022, 6, e12297.

[27] Y. Song, L. Wang, L. Sheng, D. Ren, H. Liang, Y. Li, A. Wang, H. Zhang, H. Xu, X. He, Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 1943.

[28] K. Yuan, Y. Lin, X. Li, Y. Ding, P. Yu, J. Peng, J. Wang, H. Liu, S. Dou, Energy Environ. Mater. 2024, 7, e12759.

[29] W. Mrozik, M. A. Rajaeifar, O. Heidrich, P. Christensen, Energy Environ. Sci. 2021, 14, 6099.

[30] J. F. Peters, M. Baumann, B. Zimmermann, J. Braun, M. Weil, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 67, 491.

[31] T. Tawalbeh, S. Rangarajan, H. Liu, Y. Wang, J. Power Sources 2025, 652, 237635.

[32] B. Liu, Y. Jia, C. Yuan, L. Wang, X. Gao, S. Yin, J. Xu, Energy Storage Mater. 2020, 24, 85.

[33] S. Wu, Y. Chen, W. Luan, H. Chen, L. Huo, M. Wang, S.-T. Tu, Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2024, 7, 35.

[34] Y. S. Zhang, N. E. Courtier, Z. Zhang, K. Liu, J. J. Bailey, A. M. Boyce, G. Richardson, P. R. Shearing, E. Kendrick, D. J. L. Brett, Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 12, 2102233.

[35] H. Ahn, D. Kim, M. Lee, K. W. Nam, Commun. Mater. 2023, 4, 37.

[36] X. Fu, R. Shi, Y. Liu, X. He, Q. Li, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhao, S. Jiao, Energy Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 2165.

[37] Z. Lin, Y. Cai, S. Zhang, J. Sun, Y. Liu, Y. Zheng, K. Huo, Nano-Micro Lett. 2025, 18, 27.

[38] Z. Tian, W. Guo, Z. Shi, Z. Alhubail, Y. Wang, D. Alsulaiman, Y. Zhu, J. Ming, J. Sun, H. N. Alshareef, ACS Energy Lett. 2024, 9, 5179.

[39] L. Tang, H. Peng, J. Kang, H. Chen, M. Zhang, Y. Liu, D. H. Kim, Y. Liu, Z. Lin, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2024, 53, 4877.

[40] F. Zhang, T. Liao, Q. Zhou, J. Bai, X. Li, Z. Sun, Mater. Sci. Eng. R-Rep. 2025, 165, 101012.

[41] Y. Zhao, Y. Wang, J. Li, J. Xiong, Q. Li, K. K. Abdalla, Y. Zhao, Z. Cai, X. Sun, eScience 2025, 5, 100331.

[42] S. S. Shinde, S. H. Kim, N. K. Wagh, J. H. Lee, Adv. Energy Mater. 2025, 15, 2405326.

[43] P. Zhang, M. Wei, K. Wang, H. Wang, Y. Zuo, M. Zhang, Energy Storage Mater. 2025, 75, 104109.

[44] Y. Zhang, Y.-R. Wang, L. Zhou, C. Guo, M. Shi, Z. Chen, Y. Tian, Y. Chen, Y.-Q. Lan, Coord. Chem. Rev. 2025, 536, 216670.

[45] J. Dong, G. Zhou, W. Ding, J. Ji, Q. Wang, T. Wang, L. Zhang, X. Zou, J. Yin, E. H. Ang, Energy Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 4872.

[46] Z. Wu, Q. Li, Z. Chen, C. Zhi, Matter 2025, 8, 102137.

[47] G. Xu, Y. Li, J. Li, J. Li, X. Liu, C. Wang, W. Mai, G. Yang, L. Pan, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202511389.

[48] M. Rana, N. Alghamdi, X. Peng, Y. Huang, B. Wang, L. Wang, I. R. Gentle, S. Hickey, B. Luo, Exploration 2023, 3, 20220073.

[49] Z. Yuan, Y. Yin, C. Xie, H. Zhang, Y. Yao, X. Li, Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1902025.

[50] H. Wen, H. Wen, Y. Sun, J. Li, C. Zhuang, M. Liu, H. Li, H. Fan, B. Yin, S. Zhang, T. Ma, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2500323.

[51] L. Yan, S. Zhang, Q. Kang, X. Meng, Z. Li, T. Liu, T. Ma, Z. Lin, Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 54, 339.

[52] L. Zhang, H. Guo, W. Zong, Y. Huang, J. Huang, G. He, T. Liu, J. Hofkens, F. Lai, Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 4872.

[53] D. R. Martin, J. Chem. Educ. 1948, 25, 495.

[54] T. Yamamoto, M. Hishinuma, A. Yamamoto, Inorg. Chim. Acta 1984, 86, L47.

[55] B. Li, Z. Nie, M. Vijayakumar, G. Li, J. Liu, V. Sprenkle, W. Wang, Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 6303.

[56] H. Pan, B. Li, D. Mei, Z. Nie, Y. Shao, G. Li, X. S. Li, K. S. Han, K. T. Mueller, V. Sprenkle, J. Liu, ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 2674.

[57] X. Li, Y. Sun, L. Zhou, H. Wang, B. Xie, W. Lu, J. Ning, Y. Hu, Mater. Horiz. 2024, 11, 4133.

[58] C. Geng, S. Li, J. Li, W. Wen, C. Han, H.-F. Li, H.-M. Cheng, Nano Energy 2025, 145, 111407.

[59] Q. Gui, W. Cui, D. Ba, X. Sang, Y. Li, J. Liu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202409098.

[60] W. van den Bergh, M. Stefik, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2204126.

[61] Z. Chen, X. Gao, L. Shan, Q. Fu, Z. Xing, P. Rao, Z. Kang, X. Shi, W. Zhang, X. Tian, Energy Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 8768.

[62] Z. Chen, J. Zhang, C. Zhou, S. Guo, D. Wu, Z. Zhao, Z. Wang, J. Li, Z. Xing, P. Rao, Z. Kang, X. Tian, X. Shi, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 15, 2404814.

[63] C. Qiu, M. Chen, Y. Pan, X. Shi, Y. Yang, F. Li, Z. Xing, J. Li, Z. Zhao, L. Shan, X. Tian, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202513747.

[64] B. Lu, J. Deng, Z. Wu, H. Yu, L. Yan, L. Zhang, T. F. Yi, J. Shu, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2505203.

[65] H. Shahali, R. Sellers, A. Rafieerad, A. A. Polycarpou, A. Amiri, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 65, 103130.

[66] Y. Zhang, A. Amardeep, Z. Wu, L. Tao, J. Xu, D. J. Freschi, J. Liu, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2308580.

[67] V. Giordani, D. Tozier, H. Tan, C. M. Burke, B. M. Gallant, J. Uddin, J. R. Greer, B. D. McCloskey, G. V. Chase, D. Addison, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 2656.

[68] K. Song, D. A. Agyeman, M. Park, J. Yang, Y. M. Kang, Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1606572.

[69] L. Ye, M. Liao, K. Zhang, M. Zheng, Y. Jiang, X. Cheng, C. Wang, Q. Xu, C. Tang, P. Li, Y. Wen, Y. Xu, X. Sun, P. Chen, H. Sun, Y. Gao, Y. Zhang, B. Wang, J. Lu, H. Zhou, Y. Wang, Y. Xia, X. Xu, H. Peng, Nature 2024, 626, 313.

[70] Y. Hu, Z. Min, G. Zhu, Y. Zhang, Y. Pei, C. Chen, Y. Sun, G. Liang, H.-M. Cheng, Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 3255.

[71] B. Wen, C. Yang, J. Wu, J. Liu, B. Li, J. Yang, Y. Liu, ACS Energy Lett. 2023, 8, 4204.

[72] L. Yao, L. Jiang, Y. Wang, X. Chi, Y. Liu, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, e05342.

[73] Y. Cao, S. Ju, Q. Zhang, K. Gao, A. Marcelli, Z. Zhang, Adv. Powder Mater. 2025, 4, 100278.

[74] W. Li, D. Wang, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2304983.

[75] M. Qian, Z. Xu, Z. Wang, B. Wei, H. Wang, S. Hu, L. M. Liu, L. Guo, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2004835.

[76] K. Yu, Y. Liu, B. Fu, R.-W. Zhang, D.-S. Ma, X.-P. Li, Z.-M. Yu, C.-C. Liu, Y. Yao, Phys. Rev. B 2024, 109, 125423.

[77] X. Zhang, Y. Liu, Q. Huang, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 2020, 32, 335301.

[78] Z. Han, G. Czap, C.-L. Chiang, C. Xu, P. J. Wagner, X. Wei, Y. Zhang, R. Wu, W. Ho, Science 2017, 358, 206.

[79] C. W. Kellett, P. Kennepohl, C. P. Berlinguette, Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 3310.

[80] J. B. Neaton, Science 2017, 358, 6360.

[81] C. Li, H. Li, X. Ren, L. Hu, J. Deng, J. Mo, X. Sun, G. Chen, X. Yu, ACS Nano 2025, 19, 2633.

[82] X. Li, T. Liu, P. Li, G. Liang, Z. Huang, Z. Chen, A. Chen, Y. Su, L. Yang, D. Cao, C. Zhi, ACS Nano 2025, 19, 2900.

[83] T. Liu, C. Lei, W. Yang, H. Wang, W. Ma, J. Li, X. Liang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202422163.

[84] Y. Sun, X. Li, R. Li, J. Shou, Z. Sun, J. Yang, H. Wang, J. Energy Chem. 2025, 109, 662.

[85] H. Chen, L. Zhou, Y. Sun, T. Zhang, H. Wang, H. Huang, J. Ning, Y. Hu, Energy Storage Mater. 2025, 76, 104113.

[86] D. Lin, Y. Li, Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2108856.

[87] J. Ma, M. Wang, H. Zhang, L. Fu, W. Zhang, B. Song, S. Lu, Q. Chen, K. Lu, Mater. Today Energy 2022, 30, 101146.

[88] H. Wang, L. Hu, H. Xu, J. Liu, ACS Nano 2025, 19, 22645.

[89] S. Huang, M. Li, Y. Song, S. Xi, C. Wu, Z. W. J. Ang, Q. Wang, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2406366.

[90] K. S. Jiang, K.-H. Kim, B. M. Gallant, Joule 2025, 9, 101963.

[91] J. Xiao, Q. Li, Y. Bi, M. Cai, B. Dunn, T. Glossmann, J. Liu, T. Osaka, R. Sugiura, B. Wu, J. Yang, J.-G. Zhang, M. S. Whittingham, Nat. Energy 2020, 5, 561.

[92] B. Babu, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 67, 103261.

[93] E. Ballas, A. Nimkar, G. Bergman, R. Elazari, R. Wakshlak, D. Sharon, M. D. Levi, D. T. Major, D. Mandler, N. Shpigel, D. Aurbach, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 70, 103461.

[94] I. Karev, A. Nimkar, N. Shpigel, D. Sharon, Energy Storage Mater. 2025, 77, 104215.

[95] J. Feng, C. Shi, X. Zhao, Y. Zhang, S. Chen, X. Cheng, J. Song, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2414047.

[96] J. Li, L. Gao, F. Pan, C. Gong, L. Sun, H. Gao, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, G. Wang, H. Liu, Nano-Micro Lett. 2023, 16, 12.

[97] Z.-Z. Shen, D.-H. Yu, H.-Y. Ding, Y. Peng, Y.-H. Chen, J.-W. Zhao, H.-Y. Xu, X.-T. Guo, H. Pang, Rare Metals 2025, 44, 2143.

[98] X. Liu, Y. Guo, F. Ning, Y. Liu, S. Shi, Q. Li, J. Zhang, S. Lu, J. Yi, Nano-Micro Lett. 2024, 16, 111.

[99] Y. Yan, J. Du, C. Li, J. Yang, Y. Xu, M. Wang, Y. Li, T. Wang, X. Li, H. Zhou, X. Hong, Y. Wu, L. Kang, Energy Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 6024.

[100] S. Zhao, Z.-H. Wang, J.-Y. Wang, P.-F. Wang, Z.-L. Liu, J. Shu, T.-F. Yi, Coord. Chem. Rev. 2025, 524, 216321.

[101] J. S. Murray, Molecules 2024, 29, 600.

[102] P. Politzer, J. S. Murray, T. Clark, G. Resnati, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2017, 19, 32166.

[103] Y. Zhang, W. Wang, J. Chem. Phys. 2020, 153, 214302.

[104] J. Bu, P. Liu, G. Ou, M. Ye, Z. Wen, Y. Zhang, Y. Tang, X. Liu, C. C. Li, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2420221.

[105] Z. Zheng, Q. Lin, Y. Gao, X. Ji, J. L. Sessler, H. Wang, Coord. Chem. Rev. 2024, 511, 215860.

[106] W. Zhou, A. Li, M. Zhou, Y. Xu, Y. Zhang, Q. He, Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 5388.

[107] M. Chen, W. Zhu, H. Guo, Z. Tian, L. Zhang, J. Wang, T. Liu, F. Lai, J. Huang, Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 59, 102760.

[108] S. J. Zhang, J. Hao, H. Li, P. F. Zhang, Z. W. Yin, Y. Y. Li, B. Zhang, Z. Lin, S. Z. Qiao, Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2201716.

[109] F. Wei, T. Zhang, H. Xu, Y. Peng, H. Guo, Y. Wang, S. Guan, J. Fu, C. Jing, J. Cheng, S. Liu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 34, 2310693.

[110] W. Li, L. Huang, H. Zhang, Y. Wu, F. Wei, T. Zhang, J. Fu, C. Jing, J. Cheng, S. Liu, Matter 2023, 6, 2312.

[111] X. Li, S. Wang, D. Zhang, P. Li, Z. Chen, A. Chen, Z. Huang, G. Liang, A. L. Rogach, C. Zhi, Adv. Mater. 2023, 36, 2304557.

[112] S. Wang, Z. Huang, B. Tang, X. Li, X. Zhao, Z. Chen, C. Zhi, A. L. Rogach, Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2300922.

[113] E. L. Smith, A. P. Abbott, K. S. Ryder, Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 11060.

[114] Y. Yang, S. Guo, Y. Pan, B. Lu, S. Liang, J. Zhou, Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 2358.

[115] Y. Yang, S. Liang, B. Lu, J. Zhou, Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 1192.

[116] J. Hao, L. Yuan, Y. Zhu, X. Bai, C. Ye, Y. Jiao, S. Z. Qiao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202310284.

[117] P. Li, Y. Wang, Q. Xiong, Y. Hou, S. Yang, H. Cui, J. Zhu, X. Li, Y. Wang, R. Zhang, S. Zhang, X. Wang, X. Jin, S. Bai, C. Zhi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202303292.

[118] P. Lin, G. Chen, Y. Kang, M. Zhang, J. Yang, Z. Lv, Y. Yang, J. Zhao, ACS Nano 2023, 17, 15492.

[119] Z. Lv, Y. Kang, G. Chen, J. Yang, M. Chen, P. Lin, Q. Wu, M. Zhang, J. Zhao, Y. Yang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2310476.

[120] H. Bi, D. Tian, Z. Zhao, Q. Yang, Y. Yuan, R. Zhang, L. Ai, X. Wang, J. Qiu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2423115.

[121] W. Zhong, H. Cheng, S. Zhang, L. Li, C. Tan, W. Chen, Y. Lu, Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 4586.

[122] G. Chen, Y. Kang, H. Yang, M. Zhang, J. Yang, Z. Lv, Q. Wu, P. Lin, Y. Yang, J. Zhao, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2300656.

[123] J. L. Yang, Z. Yu, J. Wu, J. Li, L. Chen, T. Xiao, T. Xiao, D. Q. Cai, K. Liu, P. Yang, H. J. Fan, Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2306531.

[124] W. Wang, R. Li, X. Xu, Y. Sun, Z. Sun, J. Yang, Y. Jiao, H. Wang, Coord. Chem. Rev. 2025, 544, 216951.

[125] H. Chen, X. Li, K. Fang, H. Wang, J. Ning, Y. Hu, Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2302187.

[126] N. A. Kyeremateng, R. Hahn, ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 1172.

[127] W. Cao, J. Zhang, H. Li, Energy Storage Mater. 2020, 26, 46.

[128] P. R. Shearing, L. R. Johnson, Joule 2020, 4, 1359.

[129] G. Liang, B. Liang, A. Chen, J. Zhu, Q. Li, Z. Huang, X. Li, Y. Wang, X. Wang, B. Xiong, X. Jin, S. Bai, J. Fan, C. Zhi, Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 1856.

[130] W. Ma, T. Liu, C. Xu, C. Lei, P. Jiang, X. He, X. Liang, Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 5508.

[131] Z. Yi, H. Xu, J.-L. Yang, J. Li, T. Xiao, H. Chen, C. Jiang, H. Li, S. W. Lee, H. J. Fan, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2025, 147, 26889.

[132] Y. Zou, T. Liu, Q. Du, Y. Li, H. Yi, X. Zhou, Z. Li, L. Gao, L. Zhang, X. Liang, Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 170.

[133] W. Li, H. Xu, H. Zhang, F. Wei, T. Zhang, Y. Wu, L. Huang, J. Fu, C. Jing, J. Cheng, S. Liu, Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 4502.

[134] S.-J. Zhang, J. Hao, H. Wu, Q. Chen, Y. Hu, X. Zhao, S.-Z. Qiao, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2025, 147, 16350.

[135] W. Du, Q. Huang, X. Zheng, Y. Lv, L. Miao, Z. Song, L. Gan, M. Liu, Energy Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 6540.

[136] S. Bi, H. Wang, Y. Zhang, M. Yang, Q. Li, J. Tian, Z. Niu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202312982.

[137] H. Wu, S.-J. Zhang, J. Vongsvivut, M. Jaroniec, J. Hao, S.-Z. Qiao, Joule 2025, 9, 102000.

[138] Z. Wang, N. Hu, L. Wang, H. Zhao, G. Zhao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202407628.

[139] T. Li, D. Liu, L. Gao, D. Yu, X. Liu, L. Li, W. Kang, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 15, 202403406.

[140] M. Pang, M. Yang, H. Zhang, Y. Shen, Z. Kong, J. Ye, C. Shan, Y. Wang, J. An, W. Li, X. Gao, J. Song, Nano Res. 2024, 17, 9371.

[141] X. Sun, R. B. Araujo, E. C. D. Santos, Y. Sang, H. Liu, X. Yu, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2024, 53, 7392.

[142] Y. Feng, Y. Chen, L. Zheng, X. Chen, T. Li, W. Zhao, iScience 2025, 28, 113080.

[143] S. Jiao, X. Fu, H. Huang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 32, 2107651.

[144] L. Ma, Y. Ying, S. Chen, Z. Huang, X. Li, H. Huang, C. Zhi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 60, 3791.

[145] M. Liu, Q. Chen, X. Cao, D. Tan, J. Ma, J. Zhang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2022, 144, 21683.

[146] Y. Du, R. Kang, H. Jin, W. Zhou, W. Zhang, H. Wang, J. Qin, J. Wan, G. Chen, J. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2304811.

[147] T. Liu, H. Wang, C. Lei, Y. Mao, H. Wang, X. He, X. Liang, Energy Storage Mater. 2022, 53, 544.

[148] P.-F. Zhang, J.-H. Li, S.-J. Zhang, D.-C. Li, S.-Y. Zeng, S.-L. Xu, Q.-X. Yao, L.-Y. Liu, L. Ding, H.-X. Li, Y.-Y. Hu, J.-T. Li, Y. Zhou, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 34, 2306359.

[149] M. Wang, J. Ma, H. Zhang, L. Fu, X. Li, K. Lu, Small 2023, 20, 2307021.

[150] W. Gao, S. Cheng, Y. Zhang, E. Xie, J. Fu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2211979.

[151] Q. Chen, S. Chen, J. Ma, S. Ding, J. Zhang, Nano Energy 2023, 117, 108897.

[152] H. Huang, Y. Fan, Y. Wang, L. Wang, Y. Jiang, Y. Cheng, J. Wang, Y. Zhu, Y. Yang, Matter 2025, 8, 102154.

[153] F. Yang, J. Long, J. A. Yuwono, H. Fei, Y. Fan, P. Li, J. Zou, J. Hao, S. Liu, G. Liang, Y. Lyu, X. Zheng, S. Zhao, K. Davey, Z. Guo, Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 4630.

[154] L. Ma, G. Zhu, Z. Wang, A. Zhu, K. Wu, B. Peng, J. Xu, D. Wang, Z. Jin, Nano Lett. 2023, 23, 5272.

[155] X. Yang, H. Fan, F. Hu, S. Chen, K. Yan, L. Ma, Nano-Micro Lett. 2023, 15, 126.

[156] C. Dong, Y. Yu, C. Ma, C. Zhou, J. Wang, J. Gu, J. Ji, S. Yang, Z. Liu, X. Xu, L. Mai, Energy Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 3014.

[157] Y. Gao, Y. Liu, X. Guo, J. Zhang, C. Zhou, F. Li, Z. Xu, Z. Zhao, Z. Xing, P. Rao, Z. Kang, X. Tian, X. Shi, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2421714.

[158] H. Ge, X. Xie, X. Xie, B. Zhang, S. Li, S. Liang, B. Lu, J. Zhou, Energy Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 3270.

[159] Q. Yang, Q. Li, Z. Liu, D. Wang, Y. Guo, X. Li, Y. Tang, H. Li, B. Dong, C. Zhi, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2001854.

[160] N. G. Ningappa, K. Vishweswariah, M. D. Bouguern, A. K. MR, K. Amine, K. Zaghib, Nano Energy 2025, 141, 111144.

[161] M. Gao, Z. Wang, D. G. Lek, Q. Wang, Nano Res. Energy 2023, 2, e9120045.

[162] H. Ge, X. Feng, D. Liu, Y. Zhang, Nano Res. Energy 2023, 2, e9120039.

[163] X. Zheng, R. Luo, W. Chen, Nano Res. Energy 2023, 2, e9120053.

[164] L. Zhang, J. Huang, H. Guo, L. Ge, Z. Tian, M. Zhang, J. Wang, G. He, T. Liu, J. Hofkens, D. J. L. Brett, F. Lai, Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2203790.

[165] H. Peng, Y. Fang, J. Wang, P. Ruan, Y. Tang, B. Lu, X. Cao, S. Liang, J. Zhou, Matter 2022, 5, 4363.

[166] J. Li, X. Zhang, X. Xu, B. Xie, Y. Wang, L. Su, H. Wang, C. Ouyang, X. Gao, Adv. Sci. 2025, 12, e09239.

[167] Y. Lyu, J. A. Yuwono, P. Wang, Y. Wang, F. Yang, S. Liu, S. Zhang, B. Wang, K. Davey, J. Mao, Z. Guo, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202303011.

[168] Y. Zhang, L. Wang, Q. Li, B. Hu, J. Kang, Y. Meng, Z. Zhao, H. Lu, Nano-Micro Lett. 2022, 14, 208.

[169] Z. Zhang, Y. Zhu, M. Yu, Y. Jiao, Y. Huang, Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 6489.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). Energy & Environmental Materials published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Zhengzhou University.