Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase for Sodium Metal Batteries: Mechanistic Insights and Design Strategies

Abstract

As the transition to renewable energy accelerates, sodium metal batteries have emerged as a viable and economical substitute for lithium-ion technology. The unstable solid electrolyte interphase on sodium metal anodes continues to provide a significant challenge to attaining long-term cycle stability and safety. Natural solid electrolyte interphase layers frequently demonstrate inadequate mechanical integrity and deficient ionic conductivity, resulting in dendritic formation, diminished Coulombic efficiency, and capacity degradation. Creating artificial solid electrolyte interphases has emerged as an essential remedy to address these restrictions. This review offers an extensive analysis of artificial solid electrolyte interphases techniques for sodium metal batteries, emphasizing their creation mechanisms, material selection, and structural design. The research highlights the significance of fluoride-based materials, multi-layered solid electrolyte interphase structures, and polymer composites in mitigating dendrite development and improving interfacial stability. Advanced characterization techniques, including microscopy and spectroscopy, are emphasized for examining the microstructure and ion transport properties of artificial solid electrolyte interphases layers. Additionally, density functional theory simulations are examined to forecast ideal material compositions and ion migration paths. This study seeks to inform future developments in artificial solid electrolyte interphases engineering to facilitate enhanced performance, safety, and market viability of sodium metal batteries. Artificial solid electrolyte interphases facilitate next-generation sustainable energy storage systems through new interface designs and integrated analysis.

Keywords

dendrite suppression / energy storage technology / interface engineering / sodium metal batteries / α-SEI

References

[1] Y. Li, X. Ru, M. Yang, Y. Zheng, S. Yin, C. Hong, F. Peng, M. Qu, C. Xue, J. Lu, Nature 2024, 626, 105.

[2] J. He, L. Cao, J. Cui, G. Fu, R. Jiang, X. Xu, C. Guan, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2306090.

[3] B. Gupta, K. H. Min, Y. Lee, J. Tournet, B. Hoex, C. Jagadish, H. H. Tan, S. Karuturi, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2400743.

[4] Y. Zhao, Y. Wang, J. Li, J. Xiong, Q. Li, K. K. Abdalla, Y. Zhao, Z. Cai, X. Sun, eScience 2024, 4, 100331.

[5] D. Wang, Y. Jiao, W. Shi, B. Pu, F. Ning, J. Yi, Y. Ren, J. Yu, Y. Li, H. Wang, Prog. Mater. Sci. 2023, 133, 101055.

[6] W. Wang, H. Tang, J. Cunha, M. Karimi, N. Lashari, A. Ahmad, H. Yin, Energy Mater. 2025, 5, 500008.

[7] Z. M. Konz, B. M. Wirtz, A. Verma, T.-Y. Huang, H. K. Bergstrom, M. J. Crafton, D. E. Brown, E. J. McShane, A. M. Colclasure, B. D. McCloskey, Nat. Energy 2023, 8, 450.

[8] T. Guo, Y. Zhou, Z. Wang, J. Cunha, C. Alves, P. Ferreira, Z. Hou, H. Yin, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2310166.

[9] S. Yang, Y. Wang, H. Pan, P. He, H. Zhou, Nature 2024, 636, 309.

[10] L. Wang, S. Zhang, N. Li, J. Chen, Y. Chen, Z. Zhang, L. Tan, X. Niu, Y. Yang, J. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2408965.

[11] A. Nekahi, M. Dorri, M. Rezaei, M. D. Bouguern, A. K. M. R. Reddy, X. Li, S. Deng, K. Zaghib, Batteries 2024, 10, 279.

[12] P. K. Nayak, L. Yang, W. Brehm, P. Adelhelm, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 102.

[13] A. Yao, S. M. Benson, W. C. Chueh, Nat. Energy 2025, 10, 404.

[14] A. M. Glushenkov, Energy Mater. 2023, 3, 300010.

[15] A. Rudola, A. J. Rennie, R. Heap, S. S. Meysami, A. Lowbridge, F. Mazzali, R. Sayers, C. J. Wright, J. Barker, J. Mater. Chem. A 2021, 9, 8279.

[16] F. Duffner, N. Kronemeyer, J. Tübke, J. Leker, M. Winter, R. Schmuch, Nat. Energy 2021, 6, 123.

[17] C. Vaalma, D. Buchholz, M. Weil, S. Passerini, Nat. Rev. Mater. 2018,

[18] G. G. Eshetu, G. A. Elia, M. Armand, M. Forsyth, S. Komaba, T. Rojo, S. Passerini, Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 2000093.

[19] C. Bao, B. Wang, P. Liu, H. Wu, Y. Zhou, D. Wang, H. Liu, S. Dou, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2004891.

[20] J. Song, B. Xiao, Y. Lin, K. Xu, X. Li, Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1703082.

[21] J.-Y. Hwang, S.-T. Myung, Y.-K. Sun, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3529.

[22] E. Wang, Y. Niu, Y.-X. Yin, Y.-G. Guo, ACS Mater. Lett. 2020, 3, 18.

[23] Z. Tian, Y. Zou, G. Liu, Y. Wang, J. Yin, J. Ming, H. N. Alshareef, Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2201207.

[24] H. Kumar, E. Detsi, D. P. Abraham, V. B. Shenoy, Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 8930.

[25] X. Gao, Z. Xing, M. Wang, C. Nie, Z. Shang, Z. Bai, S. X. Dou, N. Wang, Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 60, 102821.

[26] J. Pu, C. Zhong, J. Liu, Z. Wang, D. Chao, Energy Environ. Sci. 2021, 14, 3872.

[27] L. Zhu, Y. Li, J. Zhao, J. Liu, L. Wang, J. Lei, Green Energy Environ. 2023, 8, 1279.

[28] X. Wang, J. Lu, Y. Wu, W. Zheng, H. Zhang, T. Bai, H. Liu, D. Li, L. Ci, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2311256.

[29] H. Huang, C. Liu, Z. Liu, Y. Wu, Y. Liu, J. Fan, G. Zhang, P. Xiong, J. Zhu, Adv. Powder Mater. 2024, 3, 100141.

[30] Z. Li, K. Zhu, P. Liu, L. Jiao, Adv. Energy Mater. 2022, 12, 2100359.

[31] Z. W. Seh, J. Sun, Y. Sun, Y. Cui, ACS Cent. Sci. 2015, 1, 449.

[32] T. Liu, X. Yang, J. Nai, Y. Wang, Y. Liu, C. Liu, X. Tao, Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 409, 127943.

[33] J. Ge, C. Ma, Y. Zhang, P. Ma, J. Zhang, Z. Xie, L. Wen, G. Tang, Q. Wang, W. Li, Adv. Mater. 2024,

[34] A. Singla, K. G. Naik, B. S. Vishnugopi, P. P. Mukherjee, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2418033.

[35] X. Nie, J. Hu, C. Li, Interdiscip. Mater. 2023, 2, 365.

[36] M. H. Pai, T. Lai, A. Manthiram, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2407450.

[37] W. Guo, D. Y. Wang, Q. Chen, Y. Fu, Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2103989.

[38] S. Kim, M. J. Lee, S. H. Kwon, J. Park, Y. Byun, J. Choi, H. Seong, H. S. Kwon, E. Lee, S. W. Lee, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2403846.

[39] S. L. Xiang, Q.-C. Ding, J. Liu, H. Hu, B. Zhao, S. Z. Lu, F. Huang, J. Cunha, J. Rodrigues, Z. Yu, H. Yin, Nano Mater. Sci. 2024,

[40] J. H. Suh, S. A. Han, S. Y. Yang, J. W. Lee, Y. Shimada, S. M. Lee, J. W. Lee, M. S. Park, J. H. Kim, Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2414117.

[41] J. L. Li, Y. N. Wang, S. Y. Sun, Z. Zheng, Y. Gao, P. Shi, Y. J. Zhao, X. Li, Q. Li, X. Q. Zhang, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 15, 2403845.

[42] P. Huang, J. Lin, Z. Wang, W. Li, Y. Chen, L. Zhou, L. Chen, C. Zhang, W. Wei, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2413302.

[43] B. Liu, X. Ma, Q. Wang, S. Zhang, J. Yuwono, H. Jin, J. Qiu, H. Ma, C. Wang, C. Lai, Adv. Energy Mater. 2025, 15, 2404660.

[44] Z. Wang, Z. Chen, B. Wang, C. Wu, C. Zhou, Y. Peng, X. Zhang, Z. Ni, C.-y. Chung, C.-c. Chan, Appl. Energy 2025, 377, 124120.

[45] H. Zhang, X. Liu, T. Ji, J. Ran, Y. Li, Z. Shen, X. Wang, Chin. Chem. Lett. 2024,

[46] S. Xiang, L. Zhu, L. Fu, M. Wang, X. Zhang, Y. Tang, D. Sun, H. Wang, eScience 2024, 5, 100291.

[47] P. Xiong, R. Ma, N. Sakai, L. Nurdiwijayanto, T. Sasaki, ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 997.

[48] F. Hartmann, M. Etter, G. Cibin, L. Liers, H. Terraschke, W. Bensch, Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2101576.

[49] J. Deng, W. B. Luo, S. L. Chou, H. K. Liu, S. X. Dou, Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1701428.

[50] W. Liu, P. Liu, D. Mitlin, Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 2002297.

[51] H. Xia, L. Zan, G. Qu, Y. Tu, H. Dong, Y. Wei, K. Zhu, Y. Yu, Y. Hu, D. Deng, J. Zhang, Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 771.

[52] D. Li, Y. Sun, M. Li, X. Cheng, Y. Yao, F. Huang, S. Jiao, M. Gu, X. Rui, Z. Ali, C. Ma, Z.-S. Wu, Y. Yu, ACS Nano 2022, 16, 16966.

[53] J. Guo, Y. Li, K. Xu, Z. Huang, W. Hu, Y. Tan, C. Sun, J. Yang, H. Geng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2411760.

[54] M. Ali, S. Iqbal, A. N. Chishti, M. Ali, S. Aman, H. Hussain, Y. Jiang, X. Lin, M. Yousaf, Nano Energy 2024, 132, 110348.

[55] P.-Y. Yang, C.-W. Pao, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 5017.

[56] S. Sarkar, M. J. Lefler, B. S. Vishnugopi, R. B. Nuwayhid, C. T. Love, R. Carter, P. P. Mukherjee, Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 2023, 4, 101356.

[57] H. Yin, D. Han, W. Wang, Z. Hou, M. Zhou, Y. Han, İ. Çaha, J. Cunha, M. Karimi, Z. Tai, Chin. Chem. Lett. 2024,

[58] C. Zhu, D. Wu, Z. Wang, H. Wang, J. Liu, K. Guo, Q. Liu, J. Ma, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2214195.

[59] S. You, M. Ye, J. Xiong, Z. Hu, Y. Zhang, Y. Yang, C. C. Li, Small 2021, 17, 2102400.

[60] C. Wang, Y. Zheng, Z. N. Chen, R. Zhang, W. He, K. Li, S. Yan, J. Cui, X. Fang, J. Yan, Adv. Energy Mater. 2023, 13, 2204125.

[61] Y. Zhang, H. Zheng, X. Tong, H. Zhuo, W. Yang, Y. Chen, G. Shi, Z. Chen, L. Zhong, X. Peng, Energy Environ. Mater. 2024, 7, e12735.

[62] Y.-F. Fan, Z.-L. Yi, Y. Zhou, H. Liu, Q. Sun, L.-J. Xie, Z.-B. Wang, F.-Y. Su, C.-M. Chen, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2025, 685, 107.

[63] J. Wang, K. Yang, S. Sun, Q. Ma, G. Yi, X. Chen, Z. Wang, W. Yan, X. Liu, Q. Cai, InfoMat 2023, 5, e12401.

[64] L. Zhao, Y. Tao, W. H. Lai, Z. Hu, J. Peng, Y. Lei, Y. Cao, S. L. Chou, Y. X. Wang, H. K. Liu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2302026.

[65] T. Yoon, M. S. Milien, B. S. Parimalam, B. L. Lucht, Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 3237.

[66] E. F. Marques, R. O. Brito, Y. Wang, B. F. B. Silva, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2006, 294, 240.

[67] H. Yin, Y. Deng, Z. He, W. Xu, Z. Hou, B. He, İ. Çaha, J. Cunha, M. Karimi, Z. Yu, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2025, 678, 447.

[68] K. Lim, J. Popovic, J. Maier, J. Mater. Chem. A 2023, 11, 5725.

[69] X. Xia, K. Chen, S. Xu, Y. Yao, L. Liu, C. Xu, X. Rui, Y. Yu, Small Sci. 2023, 3, 2300038.

[70] S. Ai, X. Wu, J. Wang, X. Li, X. Hao, Y. Meng, Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 1773.

[71] J. Huang, K. Wu, G. Xu, M. Wu, S. Dou, C. Wu, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2023, 52, 4933.

[72] T. Xu, H. Yin, P. Yu, Z. He, N. Chen, W. Shen, M. Zhu, T. Akasaka, X. Lu, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2022, 5, 1683.

[73] B. Lee, E. Paek, D. Mitlin, S. W. Lee, Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 5416.

[74] T. Wang, L. Zhong, M. Xiao, D. Han, S. Wang, Z. Huang, S. Huang, L. Sun, Y. Meng, Prog. Polym. Sci. 2023, 146, 101743.

[75] Z. Tian, W. Guo, Z. Shi, Z. Alhubail, Y. Wang, D. Alsulaiman, Y. Zhu, J. Ming, J. Sun, H. N. Alshareef, ACS Energy Lett. 2024, 9, 5179.

[76] M. Li, X. Wang, J. Meng, C. Zuo, B. Wu, C. Li, W. Sun, L. Mai, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2308628.

[77] Y.-Q. Shen, F.-L. Zeng, X.-Y. Zhou, A.-b. Wang, W.-k. Wang, N.-Y. Yuan, J.-N. Ding, J. Energy Chem. 2020, 48, 267.

[78] Z. Guo, M. Yang, Q. Fan, Y. Chen, T. Xu, C. Li, Z. Li, Z. Li, Q. Sun, H. Xia, Small 2024, 20, 2407425.

[79] T. Liu, L. Shen, Y. Li, K. Jiang, L. Song, Y. Jin, J. Yang, X. Xin, X. Yao, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 45026.

[80] S. Sarkar, T. K. Dutta, K. Jana, B. P. Mandal, A. Patra, Small 2024, 21, 2407756.

[81] L. Cao, J. Guo, Y. Feng, Y. Li, Y. Qiu, W. Zhu, Y. Tan, C. Sun, X. Rui, H. Geng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2313962.

[82] Z. Hu, L. Liu, X. Wang, Q. Zheng, C. Han, W. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2313823.

[83] C. Che, F. Wu, Y. Li, Y. Li, S. Li, C. Wu, Y. Bai, Adv. Mater. Processes 2024, 36, 2402291.

[84] Q. Yang, Z. Zhang, X.-G. Sun, Y.-S. Hu, H. Xing, S. Dai, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 2020.

[85] C. Wang, S. Dai, K. Wu, S. Liu, J. Cui, Y. Shi, X. Cao, Q. Wei, X. Fang, N. Zheng, Adv. Energy Mater. 2025, 15, 2402711.

[86] P. Liu, L. Miao, Z. Sun, X. Chen, L. Jiao, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2406058.

[87] Z. Shen, Z. Bo, R. Shi, L. Liu, H. Li, X. Zhou, J. Wang, Y. Zhao, L. Li, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2420573.

[88] R. Qiu, D. Ma, H. Zheng, M. Liu, J. Cai, W. Yan, J. Zhang, Nano Energy 2024, 128, 109920.

[89] K. Roy, M. K. Bhunia, P. E. Karthik, A. Rana, B. Das, A. Banerjee, S. Ogale, Small 2025, 21, 2410167.

[90] Y. Chu, Y. Shen, F. Guo, X. Zhao, Q. Dong, Q. Zhang, W. Li, H. Chen, Z. Luo, L. Chen, Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2020, 3, 187.

[91] S. Gao, F. Sun, N. Liu, H. Yang, P.-F. Cao, Mater. Today 2020, 40, 140.

[92] J. Zeng, Q. Liu, D. Jia, R. Liu, S. Liu, B. Zheng, Y. Zhu, R. Fu, D. Wu, Energy Storage Mater. 2021, 41, 697.

[93] L. Zhang, X. Li, M. Yang, W. Chen, Energy Storage Mater. 2021, 41, 522.

[94] J. Yang, R. Zhao, Y. Wang, Z. Hu, Y. Wang, A. Zhang, C. Wu, Y. Bai, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2213510.

[95] S. Kumar, R. Raghupathy, M. Vittadello, Batteries 2024, 10, 73.

[96] Y. An, X. Han, Y. Liu, A. Azhar, J. Na, A. K. Nanjundan, S. Wang, J. Yu, Y. Yamauchi, Small 2022, 18, 2103617.

[97] X. Xiao, F. Guo, H. Mi, X. Chang, H. Yin, C. Ji, J. Qiu, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2023, 12, 470.

[98] F. Huang, P. Xu, G. Fang, S. Liang, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2405310.

[99] J. Hou, M. Yang, D. Wang, J. Zhang, Adv. Energy Mater. 2020, 10, 1904152.

[100] J. Liu, Z. Ni, C. Wei, Z. Wang, S. Liu, H. Zhang, C. Yang, S. Xiong, J. Feng, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 72, 103753.

[101] C. Lin, A. Tang, H. Mu, W. Wang, C. Wang, J. Chem. 2015, 2015, 104673.

[102] W. Sun, Y. Xu, Y. Zhou, Z. Zeng, L. Wang, J. Ouyang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2420372.

[103] R. Damircheli, B. Hoang, V. C. Ferrari, C.-F. Lin, J. Mater. Chem. A 2024, 12, 31949.

[104] Z. Luo, S. Tao, Y. Tian, L. Xu, Y. Wang, X. Cao, Y. Wang, W. Deng, G. Zou, H. Liu, Nano Energy 2022, 97, 107203.

[105] W. Liu, Z. Chen, Z. Zhang, P. Jiang, Y. Chen, E. Paek, Y. Wang, D. Mitlin, Energy Environ. Sci. 2021, 14, 382.

[106] J. Xie, Z. Li, X. Zheng, F. Tian, D. Lei, C. Wang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2315309.

[107] S. Zaefferer, Cryst. Res. Technol. 2011, 46, 607.

[108] Z. Yang, P. V. Ong, Y. He, L. Wang, M. E. Bowden, W. Xu, T. C. Droubay, C. Wang, P. V. Sushko, Y. Du, Small 2018, 14, 1803108.

[109] Z. Zhang, S. Said, K. Smith, R. Jervis, C. A. Howard, P. R. Shearing, D. J. L. Brett, T. S. Miller, Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2101518.

[110] X. Deng, X. Liu, H. Yan, D. Wang, L. Wan, Sci. China Chem. 2014, 57, 178.

[111] S. Wang, Q. Liu, C. Zhao, F. Lv, X. Qin, H. Du, F. Kang, B. Li, Energy Environ. Mater. 2018, 1, 28.

[112] M. Yuan, H. Wang, T. Xu, N. Chu, D. Kong, L. Zeng, Y. Wang, X. Bai, H. Seok Park, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 64, e202417930.

[113] M. Xu, Z. Liu, Y. Li, N. Mubarak, H. Wong, M. Tamtaji, Y. Zhao, Y. Li, J. Wang, J. You, H. Liu, Y. Cai, K. Zhang, F. Xu, K. Amine, J.-K. Kim, Z. Luo, Energy Storage Mater. 2023, 60, 102848.

[114] Q. Wang, C. Zhao, Y. Lu, Y. Li, Y. Zheng, Y. Qi, X. Rong, L. Jiang, X. Qi, Y. Shao, Small 2017, 13, 1701835.

[115] T. Zhang, Z. Yu, J. Cunha, N. Lashari, I. Çaha, Z. Hou, H. Yin, Adv. Theory Simul. 2025,

[116] S. S. Zhang, J. Power Sources 2007, 164, 351.

[117] M. Armand, J.-M. Tarascon, Nature 2008, 451, 652.

[118] H. Yin, J. He, B. Xiao, M. Zhou, W. Wang, J. Cunha, Z. Chen, Z. Hou, T. Zhang, Z. Yu, Nano Res. Energy 2024, 3, e9120138.

[119] R. G. Fedorov, S. Maletti, C. Heubner, A. Michaelis, Y. Ein-Eli, Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2101173.

[120] J. Lee, J. Kim, S. Kim, C. Jo, J. Lee, Mater. Adv. 2020, 1, 3143.

[121] P. Pirayesh, E. Jin, Y. Wang, Y. Zhao, Energy Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 442.

[122] P. Guan, L. Liu, X. Lin, J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A1798.

[123] H. Zhang, L. li, D. Zheng, Y. Xiong, C. Yu, H. Yin, Z. Yi, X. Yu, W. Yang, Ceram. Int. 2022, 48, 27750.

[124] Y. Gao, B. Zhang, Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2205421.

[125] H. Yin, Z. Yu, Innov. Energy. 2024, 1, 100051.

[126] F. Colò, F. Bella, J. R. Nair, C. Gerbaldi, J. Power Sources 2017, 365, 293.

[127] M. Hou, Y. Zhou, F. Liang, H. Zhao, D. Ji, D. Zhang, L. Li, Y. Lei, Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 475, 146227.

[128] X. Xia, C. F. Du, S. Zhong, Y. Jiang, H. Yu, W. Sun, H. Pan, X. Rui, Y. Yu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2110280.

[129] S. Wan, K. Song, J. Chen, S. Zhao, W. Ma, W. Chen, S. Chen, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2023, 145, 21661.

[130] F. Wang, Y. Sun, J. Cheng, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2023, 145, 4056.

[131] Z. Liang, A. Baubaid, M. Radtke, M. Mellin, C. Maheu, S. Maiti, H. Sclar, I. Píš, S. Nappini, E. Magnano, Adv. Sci. 2024, 12, 2413054.

[132] W. Zhao, Z. Cao, Z. Bayhan, H. Liang, Y. Lei, L. Chen, M. A. Dar, Z. Almutairi, L. Cavallo, G. Huang, Mater. Today Energy 2023, 34, 101271.

[133] Z. Li, L. Miao, G. Lin, W. Tian, S. Yuan, Y. Si, Q. Wang, L. Jiao, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2402284.

[134] W. Mo, S. Hu, H. Li, X. Zhu, L. Zhang, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2024, 683, 600.

[135] M. Xu, Y. Li, M. Ihsan-Ul-Haq, N. Mubarak, Z. Liu, J. Wu, Z. Luo, J. K. Kim, Energy Storage Mater. 2022, 44, 477.

[136] L. Xiang, D. Jiang, Y. Gao, C. Zhang, X. Ren, L. Zhu, S. Gao, X. Zhan, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2301670.

[137] Y. Shao, G. Zhong, Y. Lu, L. Liu, C. Zhao, Q. Zhang, Y.-S. Hu, Y. Yang, L. Chen, Energy Storage Mater. 2019, 23, 514.

[138] M. Irfan, A. Manjunath, S. Mahesh, R. Somashekar, T. Demappa, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 2021, 32, 5520.

[139] Y. Fang, D. Luan, X. W. Lou, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2002976.

[140] D. Zhang, B. Li, S. Wang, S. Yang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 40265.

[141] P. Wei, Y. Yang, C. J. Liu, H. Y. Gao, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2409769.

[142] H. Yin, B. Xiao, Z.-P. Yu, J. Cunha, İ. Çaha, T.-Q. Zhang, Z.-H. Hou, G.-Y. Li, Rare Met. 2025,

[143] X. Y. Yu, X. W. Lou, Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1701592.

[144] Y. V. Lim, X. L. Li, H. Y. Yang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2006761.

[145] F. Yuan, C. Li, J. Wu, Y. Liang, H. Huang, S. Xu, X. Liang, W. Zhou, J. Guo, J. Energy Storage 2023, 63, 106979.

[146] M. Moorthy, B. Moorthy, B. K. Ganesan, A. Saha, S. Yu, D. H. Kim, S. Hong, S. Park, K. Kang, R. Thangavel, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2300135.

[147] L. Zeng, L. Huang, J. Zhu, P. Li, P. K. Chu, J. Wang, X. F. Yu, Small 2022, 18, 2201808.

[148] S. Wang, L. Zhang, Q. Zeng, J. Guan, H. Gao, L. Zhang, J. Zhong, W. Y. Lai, Q. Wang, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2302876.

[149] Z. Li, Y. Zheng, C. Liao, S. Duan, X. Liu, G. Chen, L. Dong, J. Dong, C. Ma, B. Yin, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2404427.

[150] Q. Wang, S. Wang, T. Lu, L. Guan, L. Hou, H. Du, H. Wei, X. Liu, Y. Wei, H. Zhou, Adv. Sci. 2023, 10, 2205233.

[151] Q. Zhang, T. Bian, Z. Liu, C. Wang, X. Song, R. Shi, Y. Zhao, Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2303791.

[152] K. Yu, J. Chen, Z. Xiao, Y. Yang, Y. Fu, A. N. Alodhayb, J. Li, C. Li, Y. Sun, Z. Shi, Batteries Supercaps 2024,

[153] E. Jin, J. Su, H. Hou, P. Pirayesh, Y. Wang, Y. Yuan, H. Yan, G. Popov, L. V. Goncharova, S. Ketabi, Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2406837.

[154] A. J. Howarth, Y. Liu, P. Li, Z. Li, T. C. Wang, J. T. Hupp, O. K. Farha, Nat. Rev. Mater. 2016,

[155] J. Lv, Q. Wang, M. OuYang, Y. Cao, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2024, 16, 41570.

[156] X. Gao, Y. Dong, S. Li, J. Zhou, L. Wang, B. Wang, Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2020, 3, 81.

[157] J. Qian, Y. Li, M. Zhang, R. Luo, F. Wang, Y. Ye, Y. Xing, W. Li, W. Qu, L. Wang, L. Li, Y. Li, F. Wu, R. Chen, Nano Energy 2019, 60, 866.

[158] J.-K. Sun, Q. Xu, Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7, 2071.

[159] X. Cao, C. Tan, M. Sindoro, H. Zhang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 2660.

[160] Y. Li, P. Xu, J. Mou, S. Xue, S. Huang, J. Hu, Q. Dong, C. Yang, M. Liu, Small Methods 2021, 5, 2100833.

[161] Y. Zhao, L. V. Goncharova, A. Lushington, Q. Sun, H. Yadegari, B. Wang, W. Xiao, R. Li, X. Sun, Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1606663.

[162] J. E. Crowell, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 2003, 21, S88.

[163] T. Wang, Z. Luo, C. Li, J. Gong, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43, 7469.

[164] H. Yin, X. Yu, Y. Zhu, Z. Hou, J. Cunha, Z. Liang, Z. Yu, Adv. Sci. 2025,

[165] E. Jin, K. Tantratian, C. Zhao, A. Codirenzi, L. V. Goncharova, C. Wang, F. Yang, Y. Wang, P. Pirayesh, J. Guo, Small 2022, 18, 2203045.

[166] Y. Zhao, L. V. Goncharova, Q. Zhang, P. Kaghazchi, Q. Sun, A. Lushington, B. Wang, R. Li, X. Sun, Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 5653.

[167] H. Yin, H. Li, X. Yu, M. Cao, Front. Chem. 2022, 10, 1060523.

[168] J. Dai, H. Wang, R. Zhang, J. Wang, P. Wang, T. Qiu, H. Wang, Chem. Commun. 2024, 60, 11120.

[169] C. Xie, H. Wu, K. Liang, Z. Ding, J. Dai, R. Zhang, Q. Zhang, D. Sun, Y. Ren, Y. Li, Energy Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 4228.

[170] J. Wu, P. Zou, M. Ihsan-Ul-Haq, N. Mubarak, A. Susca, B. Li, F. Ciucci, J. K. Kim, Small 2020, 16, 2003815.

[171] Y. Li, H. Dong, K. Xu, M. Chu, X. Xu, W. Zhao, Y. Xue, Q. Li, Y. Tan, C. Sun, Energy Storage Mater. 2024, 73, 103846.

[172] H. Wang, C. Wang, E. Matios, W. Li, Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 6808.

[173] P. Liu, L. Miao, Z. Sun, X. Chen, Y. Si, Q. Wang, L. Jiao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202312413.

[174] W. Zhang, X. Yang, J. Wang, J. Zheng, K. Yue, T. Liu, Y. Wang, J. Nai, Y. Liu, X. Tao, Small 2023, 19, 2207540.

[175] H. U. Rashid, K. Yu, M. N. Umar, M. N. Anjum, K. Khan, N. Ahmad, M. T. Jan, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 2015, 40, 235.

[176] H. Zou, S. Wu, J. Shen, Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 3893.

[177] E. Kiran, J. Supercrit. Fluids 2016, 110, 126.

[178] Z. Hou, S. Xia, W. Fan, Y. Gong, T. Yuan, Y. Pang, J. Yang, S. Zheng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2408617.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Energy & Environmental Materials published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Zhengzhou University.