Sustainable management of post-phytoremediation biomass

Abstract

Organic and inorganic contaminants are entrained into environmental systems through natural and anthropogenic processes, such as mining activities, manufacturing, and waste disposal. In terrestrial and aquatic environments, the contaminant(s) remediation can be achieved by immobilization, thereby inhibiting their dispersal and bioavailability. Mobilization, through leaching and plant uptake, is another process of pollutant removal. Phytoremediation has attracted attention as an eco-friendly alternative for the remediation of contaminated environments. However, the safe management of post-phytoremediation contaminated biomass poses many practical challenges. Understanding the fate of the pollutants in the plants allows the estimation of the possible transfer of the contaminants to the food chain ascertain by-products or residues during biofuel production. Metal-enriched fractions could be used as a valuable source of novel catalysts or reusable materials. The safe conversion of biomass into energy may require sequestering contaminants at any step of the process, preferably upstream of the energy conversion or as a pre-treatment of plant biomass. Through gasification or pyrolysis of post-remediation biomass, bioenergy products (including syngas, oil, hydrogen gas, biochar, and hydrochar) can be used for heating and electricity generation. A comparative evaluation among pyrolysis, gasification, combustion, and liquefaction/fermentation processes for biofuel production from post-phytoremediation biomass suggests that pyrolysis is the strategy with the lowest transfer of toxic metals to the final products. This review presents critical discussions of the processes involved in phytoremediation of contaminated environments, the redistribution of contaminants within plant biomass, the sustainable management of post-phytoremediation biomass, and the unintended environmental consequences of phytoremediation.

Keywords

Post-phytoremediation / Bioenergy / Redistribution / Toxic metals / Catalysts / Food chain

References

[1] Adamo P, Dudka S, Wilson MJ, McHardy WJ. Distribution of trace elements in soils from the sudbury smelting area. Water Air Soil Pollut, 2002, 137(1): 95-116

[2] Aghili S, Golzary A. Greening the earth, healing the soil: a comprehensive life cycle assessment of phytoremediation for heavy metal contamination. Environ Technol Innov, 2023, 32 103241

[3] Ahmad M, Rajapaksha AU, Lim JE, Zhang M, Bolan N, Mohan D, Vithanage M, Lee SS, Ok YS. Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere, 2014, 99: 19-33

[4] Al-Thani RF, Yasseen BT. Phytoremediation of polluted soils and waters by native Qatari plants: future perspectives. Environ Pollut, 2020, 259 113694

[5] Ancona V, Rascio I, Aimola G, Caracciolo AB, Grenni P, Uricchio VF, Borello D. Plant-assisted bioremediation: Soil recovery and energy from biomass. Assisted Phytoremediation, 2022Elsevier2548

[6] Ariani A, Barozzi F, Sebastiani L, Sanità L, di Toppi G, di Sansebastiano P, Andreucci A. AQUA1 is a mercury sensitive poplar aquaporin regulated at transcriptional and post-translational levels by Zn stress. Plant Physiol Biochem, 2019, 135: 588-600

[7] Armel KNB, Emile BBB, Daniel AK. Distribution and characterization of heavy metal and pollution indices in landfill soil for its rehabilitation by phytoremediation. J Geosci Environ Prot, 2022, 10(01): 151-172

[8] Azabo M, Abdelhaleem A, Nasr M. Feasibility of phytoremediation/pyrolysis/adsorption framework for valorization of water hyacinth: Life cycle assessment, techno-economics, and sustainability pillars. J. Water Proc. Eng., 2025, 71 107146

[9] Banakar R, Alvarez Fernandez A, Díaz-Benito P, Abadia J, Capell T, Christou P. Phytosiderophores determine thresholds for iron and zinc accumulation in biofortified rice endosperm while inhibiting the accumulation of cadmium. J Exp Bot, 2017, 68(17): 4983-4995

[10] Basharat Z, Novo LAB, Yasmin A. Genome editing weds CRISPR: What is in it for phytoremediation?. Plants, 2018, 7(3): 51

[11] Bassegio C, Campagnolo MA, Schwantes D, Junior ACG, Manfrin J, da Paz A, Schiller DB. Growth and accumulation of Pb by roots and shoots of Brassica juncea L.. Int J Phytoremed, 2020, 22(2134-139

[12] Basu S, Rabara RC, Negi S, Shukla P. Engineering PGPMOs through gene editing and systems biology: a solution for phytoremediation?. Trends Biotechnol, 2018, 36(5): 499-510

[13] Bayabil HK, Teshome FT, Li YC. Emerging contaminants in soil and water. Front Environ Sci, 2022

[14] Beceiro P, Brito RS, Galvão A. Assessment of the contribution of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) to urban resilience: application to the case study of Porto. Ecol Eng, 2022, 175 106489

[15] Bedair H, Ghosh S, Abdelsalam IM, Keerio AA, AlKafaas SS. Potential implementation of trees to remediate contaminated soil in Egypt. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2022, 29(52): 78132-78151

[16] Beesley L, Moreno-Jiménez E, Gomez-Eyles JL. Effects of biochar and greenwaste compost amendments on mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of inorganic and organic contaminants in a multi-element polluted soil. Environ Pollut, 2010, 158(6): 2282-2287

[17] Beiyuan J, Tsang DCW, Valix M, Baek K, Ok YS, Zhang W, Bolan NS, Rinklebe J, Li X-D. Combined application of EDDS and EDTA for removal of potentially toxic elements under multiple soil washing schemes. Chemosphere, 2018, 205: 178-187

[18] Bernal MP, Gómez X, Chang R, Arco-Lázaro E, Clemente R. Strategies for the use of plant biomass obtained in the phytostabilisation of trace-element-contaminated soils. Biomass Bioenerg, 2019, 126: 220-230

[19] Bian F, Zhong Z, Li C, Zhang X, Gu L, Huang Z, Gai X, Huang Z. Intercropping improves heavy metal phytoremediation efficiency through changing properties of rhizosphere soil in bamboo plantation. J Hazard Mater, 2021, 416 125898

[20] Biswal BK, Bolan N, Zhu Y-G, Balasubramanian R. Nature-based Systems (NbS) for mitigation of stormwater and air pollution in urban areas: A review. Resour Conserv Recycl, 2022, 186 106578

[21] Blanco-Velázquez FJ, Pino-Mejías R, Anaya-Romero M. Evaluating the provision of ecosystem services to support phytoremediation measures for countering soil contamination. A case-study of the Guadiamar Green Corridor (SW Spain). Land Degrad Dev, 2020, 31(18): 2914-2924

[22] Calvo VLV, Giner-Santonja G, Alonso-Fariñas B, Aguado JM. The effect of the European industrial emissions directive on the air emission limit values set by competent authorities in the permitting procedure: the case of the spanish cement industry. Sci Total Environ, 2021, 773 145491

[23] Cao C, Liu S-Q, Ma Z-B, Lin Y, Su Q, Chen H, Wang J-J. Dynamics of multiple elements in fast decomposing vegetable residues. Sci Total Environ, 2018, 616–617: 614-621

[24] Castiglioni S, Fanelli R, Calamari D, Bagnati R, Zuccato E. Methodological approaches for studying pharmaceuticals in the environment by comparing predicted and measured concentrations in River Po Italy. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 2004, 39(1): 25-32

[25] Castillo M, Alonso MC, Riu J, Barceló D. Identification of polar, ionic, and highly water soluble organic pollutants in untreated industrial wastewaters. Environ Sci Technol, 1999, 33(8): 1300-1306

[26] Cazier EA, Pham TN, Cossus L, Abla M, Ilc T, Lawrence P. Exploring industrial lignocellulosic waste: sources, types, and potential as high-value molecules. Waste Manage, 2024, 188: 11-38

[27] Chai M, Xie L, Yu X, Zhang X, Yang Y, Rahman MM, Blanco PH, Liu R, Bridgwater AV, Cai J. Poplar wood torrefaction: kinetics, thermochemistry and implications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2021, 143 110962

[28] Chen Z, Xing R, Tang J, Chen Z, Zhang Z, Liao H, Huang R, Wei D, Zhou S. Upcycling of Cd hyperaccumulator Biomass into a CdS@C nanocomposite with high photocatalytic performance. ACS Sust Chem Eng, 2019, 8(3): 1388-1395

[29] Chour Z, Laubie B, Morel JL, Tang Y, Qiu R, Simonnot M-O, Muhr L. Recovery of rare earth elements from Dicranopterisdichotoma by an enhanced ion exchange leaching process. Chem Eng Proc–Proc Intensif, 2018, 130: 208-213

[30] Chour Z, Laubie B, Morel JL, Tang Y-T, Simonnot M-O, Muhr L. Basis for a new process for producing REE oxides from Dicranopteris linearis. J Environ Chem Eng, 2020, 8(4 103961

[31] Christersson L. Poplar plantations for paper and energy in the south of Sweden. Biomass Bioenerg, 2008, 32(11): 997-1000

[32] Chrysochoou M, Theologou E, Bompoti N, Dermatas D, Panagiotakis I. Occurrence, origin and transformation processes of geogenic chromium in soils and sediments. Curr Pollut Rep, 2016, 2(4): 224-235

[33] Cobbett C, Goldsbrough P. Phytochelatins and metallothioneins: roles in heavy metal detoxification and homeostasis. Annu Rev Plant Biol, 2002, 53(1): 159-182

[34] Coelho LC, Bastos AR, Pinho PJ, Souza GA, Carvalho JG, Coelho TVA, Oliveira LC, Domingues RR, Faquin V. Marigold (Tagetes erecta): the potential value in the phytoremediation of chromium. Pedosphere, 2017, 27(3): 559-68

[35] Collin S, Baskar A, Geevarghese DM, Ali MNVS, Bahubali P, Choudhary R, Swamiappan S. Bioaccumulation of lead (Pb) and its effects in plants: a review. J Hazard Mater Lett, 2022, 3: 100064

[36] Cronin SJ, Hedley MJ, Neall VE, Smith RG. Agronomic impact of tephra fallout from the 1995 and 1996 Ruapehu Volcano eruptions. New Zealand Environ Geol, 1998, 34(1): 21-30

[37] Dang P, Li C. A mini-review of phytomining. Int J Environ Sci Technol, 2021, 19(1212825-12838

[38] Dar MI, Green ID, Khan FA. Trace metal contamination: transfer and fate in food chains of terrestrial invertebrates. Food Webs, 2019, 20 e00116

[39] Dastjerdi B, Strezov V, Kumar R, Behnia M. An evaluation of the potential of waste to energy technologies for residual solid waste in New South Wales. Aust Renew Sust Energy Rev, 2019, 115 109398

[40] Delil AD, Köleli N, Dağhan H, Bahçeci G. Recovery of heavy metals from canola (Brassica napus) and soybean (Glycine max) biomasses using electrochemical process. Environ Technol Innov, 2020, 17 100559

[41] Deng S, Zhang X, Zhu Y, Zhuo R. Recent advances in phyto-combined remediation of heavy metal pollution in soil. Biotechnol Adv, 2024, 72: 108337

[42] Dhir B. Kumar R, Sharma AK, Ahluwalia SS. Bioremediation technologies for the removal of pollutants. Advances in Environmental Biotechnology, 2017, Singapore, Springer Singapore69-91

[43] Domínguez MT, Madejón P, Madejón E, Diaz MJ. Novel energy crops for Mediterranean contaminated lands: valorization of Dittrichiaviscosa and Silybum marianum biomass by pyrolysis. Chemosphere, 2017, 186: 968-976

[44] Dube S, Matsinha LC, Makhubela BCE, Ambushe AA. Investigating cyanogen rich Manihot esculenta efficacy for Ru phytomining and application in catalytic reactions. RSC Adv, 2022, 12(2): 1165-1176

[45] Duncanson L, Armston J, Disney M, Avitabile V, Barbier N, Calders K, Carter S, Chave J, Herold M, Crowther TW, Falkowski M, Kellner JR, Labrière N, Lucas R, MacBean N, McRoberts RE, Meyer V, Næsset E, Nickeson JE, Williams M. The importance of consistent global forest aboveground biomass product validation. Surv Geophys, 2019, 40(4): 979-999

[46] Ebele AJ, Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M, Harrad S. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the freshwater aquatic environment. Emerg Cont, 2017, 3(1): 1-16

[47] Edgar V-N, Fabián F-L, Mario P-CJ, Ileana V-R. Coupling plant biomass derived from phytoremediation of potential toxic-metal-polluted soils to bioenergy production and high-value by-products—a review. Appl Sci, 2021, 11(7): 2982

[48] El-Naggar A, Lee SS, Awad YM, Yang X, Ryu C, Rizwan M, Rinklebe J, Tsang DCW, Ok YS. Influence of soil properties and feedstocks on biochar potential for carbon mineralization and improvement of infertile soils. Geoderma, 2018, 332: 100-108

[49] El-Naggar A, Lee SS, Rinklebe J, Farooq M, Song H, Sarmah AK, Zimmerman AR, Ahmad M, Shaheen SM, Ok YS. Biochar application to low fertility soils: a review of current status, and future prospects. Geoderma, 2019, 337: 536-554

[50] Espada JJ, Rodríguez R, Gari V, Salcedo-Abraira P, Bautista LF. Coupling phytoremediation of Pb-contaminated soil and biomass energy production: a comparative life cycle assessment. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 840 156675

[51] Evangelou MWH, Ebel M, Schaeffer A. Chelate assisted phytoextraction of heavy metals from soil. Effect, mechanism, toxicity, and fate of chelating agents. Chemosphere, 2007, 68(6989-1003

[52] Fabietti G, Biasioli M, Barberis R, Ajmone-Marsan F. Soil contamination by organic and inorganic pollutants at the regional scale: the case of Piedmont. Italy J Soil Sedim, 2010, 10(2): 290-300

[53] Fahad S, Chavan SB, Chichaghare AR, Uthappa AR, Kumar M, Kakade V, Pradhan A, Jinger D, Rawale G, Yadav DK, Kumar V, Farooq TH, Ali B, Sawant AV, Saud S, Chen S, Poczai P. Agroforestry systems for soil health improvement and maintenance. Sustainability, 2022, 14(22): 14877

[54] Friedl A, Padouvas E, Rotter H, Varmuza K. Prediction of heating values of biomass fuel from elemental composition. Anal Chim Acta, 2005, 544(1–2191-198

[55] Galal TM, Majrashi A, Al-Yasi HM, Farahat EA, Eid EM, Ali EF. Taif’s rose (Rosa damascena Mill var. Trigentipetala) wastes are a potential candidate for heavy metals remediation from agricultural soil. Agriculture, 2022, 12(9): 1319

[56] Geng Y, Cao G, Wang L, Wang S. Effects of equal chemical fertilizer substitutions with organic manure on yield, dry matter, and nitrogen uptake of spring maize and soil nitrogen distribution. PLoS ONE, 2019, 14(7e0219512-e0219512

[57] Gharib FA, Mansour KH, Ahmed EZ, Galal TM. Heavy metals concentration, and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of the wild mint (Mentha longifolia L.) in the Egyptian watercourses. Int J Phytoremed, 2021, 23(6): 641-651

[58] Ghazaryan K, Movsesyan H, Ghazaryan N, Watts BA. Copper phytoremediation potential of wild plant species growing in the mine polluted areas of Armenia. Environ Pollut, 2019, 249: 491-501

[59] Giannakoudakis DA, Hosseini-Bandegharaei A, Tsafrakidou P, Triantafyllidis KS, Kornaros M, Anastopoulos I. Aloe vera waste biomass-based adsorbents for the removal of aquatic pollutants: A review. J Environ Manage, 2018, 227: 354-364

[60] Gobelius L, Lewis J, Ahrens L. Plant uptake of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances at a contaminated fire training facility to evaluate the phytoremediation potential of various plant species. Environ Sci Technol, 2017, 51(21): 12602-12610

[61] Gobelius L, Hedlund J, Dürig W, Troger R, Lilja K, Wiberg K, Ahrens L. Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in Swedish groundwater and surface water: implications for environmental quality standards and drinking water guidelines. Environ Sci Technol, 2018, 52(7): 4340-4349

[62] Gómez X, Bernal MP, Zárate PP, Álvarez-Robles MJ, González R, Clemente R. Thermal evaluation of plant biomass from the phytostabilisation of soils contaminated by potentially toxic elements. Chemosphere, 2023, 342 140116

[63] Gómez-Sagasti MT, Garbisu C, Urra J, Míguez F, Artetxe U, Hernández A, Vilela J, Alkorta I, Becerril JM. Mycorrhizal-assisted phytoremediation and intercropping strategies improved the health of contaminated soil in a peri-urban area. Front Plant Sci, 2021, 12 693044

[64] Gour A, Jain NK. Advances in green synthesis of nanoparticles. Artif Cells, Nanomed Biotechnol, 2019, 47(1): 844-851

[65] Gu F, Zhang J, Shen Z, Li Y, Ji R, Li W, Zhang L, Han J, Xue J, Cheng H. A review for recent advances on soil washing remediation technologies. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, 2022, 109(4): 651-658

[66] Guillotin S, Delcourt N. Studying the impact of persistent organic pollutants exposure on human health by proteomic analysis: a systematic review. Int J Mol Sci, 2022, 23(22): 14271

[67] Gul I, Manzoor M, Kallerhoff J, Arshad M. Enhanced phytoremediation of lead by soil applied organic and inorganic amendments: Pb phytoavailability, accumulation and metal recovery. Chemosphere, 2020, 258 127405

[68] Haddaoui I, Mahjoub O, Mahjoub B, Boujelben A, Di Bella G. Occurrence and distribution of PAHs, PCBs, and chlorinated pesticides in Tunisian soil irrigated with treated wastewater. Chemosphere, 2016, 146: 195-205

[69] Hazotte C, Laubie B, Rees F, Morel JL, Simonnot M-O. A novel process to recover cadmium and zinc from the hyperaccumulator plant Noccaeacaerulescens. Hydrometallurgy, 2017, 174: 56-65

[70] He J, Strezov V, Kan T, Weldekidan H, Asumadu-Sarkodie S, Kumar R. Effect of temperature on heavy metal(loid) deportment during pyrolysis of Avicennia marina biomass obtained from phytoremediation. Biores Technol, 2019, 278: 214-222

[71] He J, Mao M, Li X, Chua CK. Bioprinting of 3D functional tissue constructs. Int J Bioprint, 2021, 7(3395

[72] Hirner AV, Feldmann J, Krupp E, Grümping R, Goguel R, Cullen WR. Metal(loid)organic compounds in geothermal gases and waters. Org Geochem, 1998, 29(5–71765-1778

[73] Hoang SA, Lamb D, Seshadri B, Sarkar B, Choppala G, Kirkham MB, Bolan NS. Rhizoremediation as a green technology for the remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soils. J Hazard Mater, 2021, 401 123282

[74] Hou D. Sustainable remediation in China: elimination, immobilization, or dilution. Environ Sci Technol, 2021, 55(23): 15572-15574

[75] Hou D. Sustainable soil management for food security. Soil Use Manag, 2023, 39(1): 1

[76] Hou D, O’Connor D, Igalavithana AD, Alessi DS, Luo J, Tsang DCW, Sparks DL, Yamauchi Y, Rinklebe J, Ok YS. Metal contamination and bioremediation of agricultural soils for food safety and sustainability. Nature Rev Earth Environ, 2020, 1(7366-381

[77] Hou R, Wang L, O’Connor D, Rinklebe J, Hou D. Natural field freeze-thaw process leads to different performances of soil amendments towards Cd immobilization and enrichment. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 831: 154880

[78] Houben D, Pircar J, Sonnet P. Heavy metal immobilization by cost-effective amendments in a contaminated soil: effects on metal leaching and phytoavailability. J Geochem Explor, 2012, 123: 87-94

[79] Huang L, Rad S, Xu L, Gui L, Song X, Li Y, Wu Z, Chen Z. Heavy metals distribution, sources, and ecological risk assessment in huixian wetland. South China Water, 2020, 12(2): 431

[80] Hunce SY, Clemente R, Bernal MP. Energy production potential of phytoremediation plant biomass: helianthus annuus and Silybum marianum. Ind Crops Prod, 2019, 135: 206-216

[81] Hussain F, Khan AHA, Hussain I, Farooqi A, Muhammad YS, Iqbal M, Arslan M, Yousaf S. Soil conditioners improve rhizodegradation of aged petroleum hydrocarbons and enhance the growth of Lolium multiflorum. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2021, 29(69097-9109

[82] Imtiazuddin SM, Mumtaz M, Mallick KA. Pollutants of wastewater characteristics in textile industries. J Basic Appl Sci, 2012, 8(2): 554-556

[83] Ionata E, Caputo E, Mandrich L, Marcolongo L. Moving towards biofuels and high-value products through phytoremediation and biocatalytic processes. Catalysts, 2024, 14(2): 118

[84] Iqbal A, Mushtaq MU, Khan AHA, Nawaz I, Yousaf S, Zeshan I. Influence of pseudomonas japonica and organic amendments on the growth and metal tolerance of Celosia argentea L.. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2020, 27(2024671-24685

[85] Islam NF, Gogoi B, Saikia R, Yousaf B, Narayan M, Sarma H. Encouraging circular economy and sustainable environmental practices by addressing waste management and biomass energy production. Reg Sust, 2024, 5(4): 100174

[86] Iyyappan J, Baskar G, Deepanraj B, Anand AV, Saravanan R, Awasthi MK. Promising strategies of circular bioeconomy using heavy metal phytoremediated plants – a critical review. Chemosphere, 2023, 313 137097

[87] Jacob J, Cherian J. Review of environmental and human exposure to persistent organic pollutants. Asian Soc Sci, 2013

[88] Jally B, Laubie B, Chour Z, Muhr L, Qiu R, Morel JL, Tang Y, Simonnot M-O. A new method for recovering rare earth elements from the hyperaccumulating fern Dicranopteris linearis from China. Miner Eng, 2021, 166 106879

[89] Jamal Khan M, Jones DL. Chemical and organic immobilization treatments for reducing phytoavailability of heavy metals in copper-mine tailings. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci, 2008, 171(6908-916

[90] Jaswal A, Singh A, Sarkar S, Singh M. Optimized phytoremediation process for the sustainable management of radionuclides in the food chain. J Food Chem Nanotechnol, 2023, 9: S291-S299

[91] Jia H, Hou D, O’Connor D, Pan S, Zhu J, Bolan NS, Mulder J. Exogenous phosphorus treatment facilitates chelation-mediated cadmium detoxification in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L). J Hazard Mater, 2020, 389: 121849

[92] Jiang Y, Lei M, Duan L, Longhurst P. Integrating phytoremediation with biomass valorisation and critical element recovery: a UK contaminated land perspective. Biomass Bioenergy, 2015, 83: 328-339

[93] Jin Y, Wang L, Song Y, Zhu J, Qin M, Wu L, Hu P, Li F, Fang L, Chen C, Hou D. Integrated life cycle assessment for sustainable remediation of contaminated agricultural soil in China. Environ Sci Technol, 2021, 55(17): 12032-12042

[94] Khan AHA, Kiyani A, Cheema AS, Tareen U, Nawaz I, Iqbal M, Yousaf S. Integrative Application of Soil Conditioners and Bio-augmentation for Enhanced Heavy Metal Stabilization from Wastewater and Improved Growth of Nicotiana alata L. and Petunia hydrida L.. J Plant Growth Regul, 2021, 40(1): 240-253

[95] Khan AHA, Kiyani A, Santiago-Herrera M, Ibáñez J, Yousaf S, Iqbal M, Martel-Martín S, Barros R. Sustainability of phytoremediation: Post-harvest stratagems and economic opportunities for the produced metals contaminated biomass. J Environ Manage, 2023, 326 116700

[96] Khan S, Masoodi TH, Pala NA, Murtaza S, Mugloo JA, Sofi PA, Zaman MU, Kumar R, Kumar A. Phytoremediation prospects for restoration of contamination in the natural ecosystems. Water, 2023, 15(8): 1498

[97] Kidd P, Barceló J, Bernal MP, Navari-Izzo F, Poschenrieder C, Shilev S, Clemente R, Monterroso C. Trace element behaviour at the root–soil interface: Implications in phytoremediation. Environ Exp Bot, 2009, 67(1243-259

[98] Koistinen J, Kukkonen JVK, Sormunen A, Mannila E, Herve S, Vartiainen T. Bioaccumulation, bioavailability and environmental fate of chlorophenol impurities, polychlorinated hydroxydiphenylethers and their methoxy analogues. Chemosphere, 2007, 68(7): 1382-1391

[99] Kolpin DW, Furlong ET, Meyer MT, Thurman EM, Zaugg SD, Barber LB, Buxton HT. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. Streams, 1999–2000: a national reconnaissance. Environ Sci Technol, 2002, 36(6): 1202-1211

[100] Krisnayanti B, Anderson C, Sukartono S, Afandi Y, Suheri H, Ekawanti A. Phytomining for artisanal gold mine tailings management. Minerals, 2016, 6(3): 84

[101] Krzesłowska M, Rabęda I, Basińska A, Lewandowski M, Mellerowicz EJ, Napieralska A, Samardakiewicz S, Woźny A. Pectinous cell wall thickenings formation – A common defense strategy of plants to cope with Pb. Environ Pollut, 2016, 214: 354-361

[102] Krzyżak J, Pogrzeba M, Rusinowski S, Clifton-Brown J, McCalmont JP, Kiesel A, Mangold A, Mos M. Heavy metal uptake by novel miscanthus seed-based hybrids cultivated in heavy metal contaminated Soil. Civil Environ Eng Rep, 2017, 26(3121-132

[103] Kumar M, Bolan NS, Hoang SA, Sawarkar AD, Jasemizad T, Gao B, Keerthanan S, Padhye LP, Singh L, Kumar S, Vithanage M, Li Y, Zhang M, Kirkham MB, Vinu A, Rinklebe J. Remediation of soils and sediments polluted with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: To immobilize, mobilize, or degrade?. J Hazard Mater, 2021, 420 126534

[104] Kumar M, Bolan N, Jasemizad T, Padhye LP, Sridharan S, Singh L, Bolan S, O’Connor J, Zhao H, Shaheen SM, Song H, Siddique KHM, Wang H, Kirkham MB, Rinklebe J. Mobilization of contaminants: potential for soil remediation and unintended consequences. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 839 156373

[105] Kurade MB, Ha Y-H, Xiong J-Q, Govindwar SP, Jang M, Jeon B-H. Phytoremediation as a green biotechnology tool for emerging environmental pollution: A step forward towards sustainable rehabilitation of the environment. Chem Eng J, 2021, 415 129040

[106] Li H, Zhang F, Rengel Z, Shen J. Rhizosphere properties in monocropping and intercropping systems between faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) grown in a calcareous soil. Crop Pasture Sci, 2013, 64(10): 976

[107] Li S, Zhang T, Li J, Shi L, Zhu X, Lü J, Li Y. Stabilization of Pb(II) accumulated in biomass through phosphate-pretreated pyrolysis at low temperatures. J Hazard Mater, 2017, 324: 464-471

[108] Li FZ, Teng YT, Zhang YP, Liu Y. Research progress of disposal technology for heavy metal hyperaccumulator plants. Environ Sci Technol, 2018, 41: 213-220

[109] Li C, Wang M, Luo X, Liang L, Han X, Lin X. Accumulation and effects of uranium on aquatic macrophyte Nymphaea tetragona Georgi: Potential application to phytoremediation and environmental monitoring. J Environ Radioact, 2019, 198: 43-49

[110] Li C, Zhou K, Qin W, Tian C, Qi M, Yan X, Han W. A review on heavy metals contamination in soil: effects, sources, and remediation techniques. Soil Sed Cont: Int J, 2019, 28(4380-394

[111] Li L, Luo Y, Li R, Zhou Q, Peijnenburg WJGM, Yin N, Yang J, Tu C, Zhang Y. Effective uptake of submicrometre plastics by crop plants via a crack-entry mode. Nature Sust, 2020, 3(11): 929-937

[112] Limmer M, Burken J. Phytovolatilization of organic contaminants. Environ Sci Technol, 2016, 50(13): 6632-6643

[113] Lin L-D, Ho J-R, Yang B-Y, Ko C-H, Chang F-C. Life cycle assessment of heavy metal contaminated sites: phytoremediation and soil excavation. Int J Phytorem, 2022, 24(4): 334-341

[114] Liu Z, Tran K-Q. A review on disposal and utilization of phytoremediation plants containing heavy metals. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2021, 226 112821

[115] Liu J, Zhao L, Liu Q, Li J, Qiao Z, Sun P, Yang Y. A critical review on soil washing during soil remediation for heavy metals and organic pollutants. Int J Environ Sci Technol, 2021, 19(1): 601-624

[116] López-Piñeiro A, Peña D, Albarrán A, Sánchez-Llerena J, Becerra D. Behavior of MCPA in four intensive cropping soils amended with fresh, composted, and aged olive mill waste. J Contam Hydrol, 2013, 152: 137-146

[117] Luo F, Hu X-F, Oh K, Yan L-J, Lu X-Z, Zhang W-J, Yonekura T, Yonemochi S, Isobe Y. Using profitable chrysanthemums for phytoremediation of Cd- and Zn-contaminated soils in the suburb of Shanghai. J Soils Sediments, 2020, 20(11): 4011-4022

[118] Ma Y, Oliveira RS, Freitas H, Zhang C. Biochemical and molecular mechanisms of plant-microbe-metal interactions: relevance for phytoremediation. Front Plant Sci, 2016, 7: 918

[119] Mahinroosta R, Senevirathna L. A review of the emerging treatment technologies for PFAS contaminated soils. J Environ Manage, 2020, 255 109896

[120] Makino T, Maejima Y, Akahane I, Kamiya T, Takano H, Fujitomi S, Ibaraki T, Kunhikrishnan A, Bolan N. A practical soil washing method for use in a Cd-contaminated paddy field, with simple on-site wastewater treatment. Geoderma, 2016, 270: 3-9

[121] Mallick SR, Proshad R, Islam MS, Sayeed A, Uddin M, Gao J, Zhang D. Heavy metals toxicity of surface soils near industrial vicinity: a study on soil contamination in Bangladesh. Arch Agr Environ Sci, 2019, 4(4): 356-368

[122] Malone Z, Berhe AA, Ryals R. Impacts of organic matter amendments on urban soil carbon and soil quality: a meta-analysis. J Clean Prod, 2023, 419 138148

[123] Mandal RR, Bashir Z, Mandal JR, Raj D. Potential strategies for phytoremediation of heavy metals from wastewater with circular bioeconomy approach. Environ Monit Assess, 2024, 196(6): 502

[124] Manikandan S, Vickram S, Sirohi R, Subbaiya R, Krishnan RY, Karmegam N, Sumathijones C, Rajagopal R, Chang SW, Ravindran B, Awasthi MK. Critical review of biochemical pathways to transformation of waste and biomass into bioenergy. Biores Technol, 2023, 372 128679

[125] Martínez-Alcalá I, Walker DJ, Bernal MP. Chemical and biological properties in the rhizosphere of Lupinus albus alter soil heavy metal fractionation. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2010, 73(4595-602

[126] Martínez-Alcalá I, Clemente R, Bernal MP. Interactions between the Hyperaccumulator Noccaeacaerulescens and Brassica juncea or Lupinus albus for Phytoextraction. Agronomy, 2020, 10(9): 1367

[127] Mishra B, Mohanta YK, Reddy CN, Reddy SDM, Mandal SK, Yadavalli R, Sarma H. Valorization of agro-industrial biowaste to biomaterials: an innovative circular bioeconomy approach. Circular Econ, 2023, 2(3100050

[128] Mohan I, Goria K, Dhar S, Richa Kothari BS, Bhau DP. Singh P, Singh R, Singh VK, Bhadouria R. Phytoremediation of heavy metals from the biosphere perspective and solutions. Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity, 2021Wiley95-127

[129] Mousavi SM, Motesharezadeh B, Hosseini HM, Alikhani H, Zolfaghari AA. Root-induced changes of Zn and Pb dynamics in the rhizosphere of sunflower with different plant growth promoting treatments in a heavily contaminated soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2018, 147: 206-216

[130] Muthusaravanan S, Sivarajasekar N, Vivek JS, Vasudha Priyadharshini S, Paramasivan T, Dhakal N, Naushad M. Research updates on heavy metal phytoremediation: enhancements, efficient post-harvesting strategies and economic opportunities. Green Mater Wastewater Treat, 2020

[131] Naz M, Raza MA, Tariq M, Zaib S, Rajper SA, Jaskani MJ, Ahsan M, Dai Z, Daolin D. Aftab T. Sustainable management of environmental contaminants: factors, control, and phytoremediation. Sustainable Management of Environmental Contaminants: Eco-friendly Remediation Approaches, 2022, Cham, Springer International Publishing116

[132] O’Connor D, Zheng X, Hou D, Shen Z, Li G, Miao G, O’Connell S, Guo M. Phytoremediation: climate change resilience and sustainability assessment at a coastal brownfield redevelopment. Environ Int, 2019, 130 104945

[133] Ozyigit II, Can H, Dogan I. Phytoremediation using genetically engineered plants to remove metals: a review. Environ Chem Lett, 2021, 19(1): 669-698

[134] Padhye LP, Srivastava P, Jasemizad T, Bolan S, Hou D, Shaheen SM, Rinklebe J, O’Connor D, Lamb D, Wang H, Siddique KHM, Bolan N. Contaminant containment for sustainable remediation of persistent contaminants in soil and groundwater. J Hazard Mater, 2023, 455 131575

[135] Page V, Feller U. Heavy metals in crop plants: transport and redistribution processes on the whole plant level. Agronomy, 2015, 5(3): 447-463

[136] Palansooriya KN, Wong JTF, Hashimoto Y, Huang L, Rinklebe J, Chang SX, Bolan N, Wang H, Ok YS. Response of microbial communities to biochar-amended soils: a critical review. Biochar, 2019, 1(1): 3-22

[137] Palansooriya KN, Shaheen SM, Chen SS, Tsang DCW, Hashimoto Y, Hou D, Bolan NS, Rinklebe J, Ok YS. Soil amendments for immobilization of potentially toxic elements in contaminated soils: a critical review. Environ Int, 2020, 134 105046

[138] Pandey J, Verma RK, Singh S. Suitability of aromatic plants for phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated areas: a review. Int J Phytorem, 2019, 21(5): 405-418

[139] Pantelis E, Anastasia A-I, Aglaia L-T, Nicholas K. Effects of vanadium and nickel on morphological characteristics and on vanadium and nickel uptake by shoots of mojito (mentha × villosa) and lavender (lavandula anqustifolia). Not Bot Horti Agrob Cluj-Napoca, 2018, 47(2): 487-492

[140] Parelho C, Rodrigues AS, Cruz JV, Garcia P. Linking trace metals and agricultural land use in volcanic soils — A multivariate approach. Sci Total Environ, 2014, 496: 241-247

[141] Pariatamby A, Kee YL. Persistent organic pollutants management and remediation. Procedia Environ Sci, 2016, 31: 842-848

[142] Parrotta L, Guerriero G, Sergeant K, Cai G, Hausman J-F. Target or barrier? The cell wall of early- and later-diverging plants vs cadmium toxicity: differences in the response mechanisms. Front Plant Sci, 2015, 6: 133

[143] Patel S, Kundu S, Halder P, Ratnnayake N, Marzbali MH, Aktar S, Selezneva E, Paz-Ferreiro J, Surapaneni A, de Figueiredo CC, Sharma A, Megharaj M, Shah K. A critical literature review on biosolids to biochar: an alternative biosolids management option. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol, 2020, 19(4): 807-841

[144] Pavel P-B, Puschenreiter M, Wenzel WW, Diacu E, Barbu CH. Aided phytostabilization using Miscanthus sinensis×giganteus on heavy metal-contaminated soils. Sci Total Environ, 2014, 479–480: 125-131

[145] Petruzzelli G, Pedron F, Rosellini I, Barbafieri M. Ansari AA, Gill SS, Gill R, Lanza GR, Newman L. The bioavailability processes as a key to evaluate phytoremediation efficiency. Phytoremediation, 2015, Cham, Springer International Publishing31-43

[146] Phang LY, Mingyuan L, Mohammadi M, Tee CS, Yuswan MH, Cheng WH, Lai KS. Phytoremediation as a viable ecological and socioeconomic management strategy. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2024, 31(38): 50126-50141

[147] Pogrzeba M, Rusinowski S, Sitko K, Krzyżak J, Skalska A, Małkowski E, Ciszek D, Werle S, McCalmont JP, Mos M, Kalaji HM. Relationships between soil parameters and physiological status of Miscanthus x giganteus cultivated on soil contaminated with trace elements under NPK fertilisation vs. microbial inoculation. Environ Pollut, 2017, 225: 163-174

[148] Priya AK, Muruganandam M, Ali SS, Kornaros M. Clean-up of heavy metals from contaminated soil by phytoremediation: a multidisciplinary and eco-friendly approach. Toxics, 2023, 11(5): 422

[149] Priyadarshini P, Abhilash PC. Circular economy practices within energy and waste management sectors of India: a meta-analysis. Biores Technol, 2020, 304 123018

[150] Puri M, Gandhi K, Kumar MS. Emerging environmental contaminants: A global perspective on policies and regulations. J Environ Manage, 2023, 332 117344

[151] Qin M, Jin Y, Peng T, Zhao B, Hou D. Heavy metal pollution in Mongolian-Manchurian grassland soil and effect of long-range dust transport by wind. Environ Int, 2023, 177 108019

[152] Radziemska M, Bęś A, Gusiatin ZM, Cerdà A, Jeznach J, Mazur Z, Brtnický M. Assisted phytostabilization of soil from a former military area with mineral amendments. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2020, 188 109934

[153] Rajendran S, Priya TAK, Khoo KS, Hoang TKA, Ng H-S, Munawaroh HSH, Karaman C, Orooji Y, Show PL. A critical review on various remediation approaches for heavy metal contaminants removal from contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 2022, 287 132369

[154] Raza A, Khan AHA, Nawaz I, Qu Z, Yousaf S, Ali MA, Sayal AU, Iqbal M. Evaluation of arsenic-induced stress in dahlia pinnata cav.: morphological and physiological response. Soil Sed Cont: Int J, 2019, 28(7716-728

[155] Riaz U, Athar T, Mustafa U, Iqbal R. Economic feasibility of phytoremediation, 2022, Elsevier, Phytoremediation

[156] Rocha CS, Rocha DC, Kochi LY, Carneiro DNM, dos Reis MV, Gomes MP. Phytoremediation by ornamental plants: a beautiful and ecological alternative. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2022, 29(3): 3336-3354

[157] Rudel RA, Melly SJ, Geno PW, Sun G, Brody JG. Identification of alkylphenols and other estrogenic phenolic compounds in wastewater, septage, and groundwater on cape cod. Massachu Environ Sci Technol, 1998, 32(7): 861-869

[158] Rujido-Santos I, Herbello-Hermelo P, Barciela-Alonso MC, Bermejo-Barrera P, Moreda-Piñeiro A. Metal content in textile and (nano)textile products. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022, 19(2): 944

[159] Salam MMA, Ruhui W, Sinkkonen A, Pappinen A, Pulkkinen P. Effects of contaminated soil on the survival and growth performance of european (Populus tremula L.) and hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × Populus tremuloidesMichx.) clones based on stand density. Plants, 2022, 11(151970

[160] Saleem MH, Ali S, Hussain S, Kamran M, Chattha MS, Ahmad S, Aqeel M, Rizwan M, Aljarba NH, Alkahtani S, Abdel-Daim MM. Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.): a potential candidate for phytoremediation? Biological and economical points of view. Plants, 2020, 9(4496

[161] Sangeetha SP, Sona S, Tapung N, Kumar A, Kumar S. Assessing phytoremediation potential of aloe barbadensis, chrysopogon zizanioides and ocimum tenuiflorum for sustainable removal of heavy metals from contaminated soil. Nat Environ and Poll Technol, 2025, 24(S1259-271

[162] Saravanan A, Jeevanantham S, Narayanan VA, Kumar PS, Yaashikaa PR, Muthu CMM. Rhizoremediation – a promising tool for the removal of soil contaminants: a review. J Environ Chem Eng, 2020, 8(2 103543

[163] Saxena G, Purchase D, Mulla SI, Saratale GD, Bharagava RN. de Voogt P. Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated sites: eco-environmental concerns, field studies, sustainability issues, and future prospects. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 249, 2020, Cham, Springer International Publishing71131

[164] Scagline-Mellor S, Griggs T, Skousen J, Wolfrum E, Holásková I. Switchgrass and giant miscanthus biomass and theoretical ethanol production from reclaimed mine lands. BioEnergy Res, 2018, 11(3): 562-573

[165] Scerri E. The periodic table. Oxford Univ Press, 2019

[166] Schutz ERD, Broch Mignoni DS, Michelon W, Oliveira Nunes ED. Optimized bioethanol production from Lemnaminuta biomass harvested from polluted water via acid and enzymatic hydrolysis. Biofuels, 2025

[167] Schwitzguébel J-P. Phytoremediation of soils contaminated by organic compounds: hype, hope and facts. J Soils Sediments, 2017, 17(5): 1492-1502

[168] Sekhohola-Dlamini LM, Keshinro OM, Masudi WL, Cowan AK. Elaboration of a phytoremediation strategy for successful and sustainable rehabilitation of disturbed and degraded land. Minerals, 2022, 12(2): 111

[169] Shaheen SM, Shams MS, Khalifa MR, El-Dali MA, Rinklebe J. Various soil amendments and environmental wastes affect the (im)mobilization and phytoavailabilityof potentially toxic elements in a sewage effluent irrigated sandy soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2017, 142: 375-387

[170] Shakeri A, Shakeri R, Mehrabi B. Potentially toxic elements and persistent organic pollutants in water and fish at Shahid Rajaei Dam, north of Iran. Int J Environ Sci Technol, 2015, 12(72201-2212

[171] Shen X, Dai M, Yang J, Sun L, Tan X, Peng C, Ali I, Naz I. A critical review on the phytoremediation of heavy metals from environment: Performance and challenges. Chemosphere, 2022, 291 132979

[172] Shi L, Li J, Palansooriya KN, Chen Y, Hou D, Meers E, Tsang DCW, Wang X, Ok YS. Modeling phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils through machine learning. J Hazard Mater, 2023, 441 129904

[173] Sigmund G, Arp HPH, Aumeier BM, Bucheli TD, Chefetz B, Chen W, Droge STJ, Endo S, Escher BI, Hale SE, Hofmann T, Pignatello J, Reemtsma T, Schmidt TC, Schönsee CD, Scheringer M. Sorption and mobility of charged organic compounds: how to confront and overcome limitations in their assessment. Environ Sci Technol, 2022, 56(8): 4702-4710

[174] Singh BM, Singh D, Dhal NK. Enhanced phytoremediation strategy for sustainable management of heavy metals and radionuclides. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng, 2022, 5 100176

[175] Singh P, Pani A, Mujumdar AS, Shirkole SS. New strategies on the application of artificial intelligence in the field of phytoremediation. Int J Phytorem, 2023, 25(4): 505-523

[176] Song U, Park H. Importance of biomass management acts and policies after phytoremediation. J Ecol Environ, 2017

[177] Song Y, Jin L, Wang X. Cadmium absorption and transportation pathways in plants. Int J Phytorem, 2017, 19(2): 133-141

[178] Sui Q, Cao X, Lu S, Zhao W, Qiu Z, Yu G. Occurrence, sources and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the groundwater: A review. Emerg Cont, 2015, 1(1): 14-24

[179] Sullivan D, Schmitt HJ, Calloway EE, Clausen W, Tucker P, Rayman J, Gerhardstein B. Chronic environmental contamination: a narrative review of psychosocial health consequences, risk factors, and pathways to community resilience. Soc Sci Med, 2021, 276 113877

[180] Taiz L, Zeiger E, Møller IM, Murphy A. Plant physiology and Development. Sinauer Ass Incorp, 2015, 6: 761

[181] Takarina ND, Pin TG. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) of heavy metals in mangrove trees of blanakan fish farm. Makara J Sci, 2017

[182] Tan HW, Pang YL, Lim S, Chong WC. A state-of-the-art of phytoremediation approach for sustainable management of heavy metals recovery. Environ Technol Innov, 2023, 30 103043

[183] Tan HW, Pang YL, Lim S, Chong WC. A state-of-the-art of phytoremediation approach for sustainable management of heavy metals recovery. Environ Technol Innov, 2023, 30 103043

[184] Tassi F, Venturi S, Cabassi J, Capecchiacci F, Nisi B, Vaselli O. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in soil gases from Solfatara crater (CampiFlegrei, southern Italy): Geogenic source(s) vs. biogeochemical processes. Appl Geochem, 2015, 56: 37-49

[185] Thijs S, Witters N, Janssen J, Ruttens A, Weyens N, Herzig R, Mench M, Van Slycken S, Meers E, Meiresonne L, Vangronsveld J. Tobacco, sunflower and high biomass SRC clones show potential for trace metal phytoextraction on a moderately contaminated field site in Belgium. Front Plant Sci, 2018, 9: 1879

[186] Timalsina H, Gyawali T, Ghimire S, Paudel SR. Potential application of enhanced phytoremediation for heavy metals treatment in Nepal. Chemosphere, 2022, 306 135581

[187] Todde G, Carboni G, Marras S, Caria M, Sirca C. Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) for phytoremediation: Energy and environmental life cycle assessment of using contaminated biomass as an energy resource. Sust Energy Technol Ass, 2022, 52: 102081

[188] Tognacchini A, Rosenkranz T, van der Ent A, Machinet GE, Echevarria G, Puschenreiter M. Nickel phytomining from industrial wastes: Growing nickel hyperaccumulator plants on galvanic sludges. J Environ Manage, 2020, 254 109798

[189] Vardhan KH, Kumar PS, Panda RC. A review on heavy metal pollution, toxicity and remedial measures: current trends and future perspectives. J Mol Liq, 2019, 290 111197

[190] Vargas-Hernández JG, Pallagst K, Zdunek-Wielgołaska J. Urban green spaces as a component of an ecosystem. Sust Dev Environ Stew, 2023

[191] Vasilachi IC, Stoleru V, Gavrilescu M. Analysis of heavy metal impacts on cereal crop growth and development in contaminated soils. Agriculture, 2023, 13(10): 1983

[192] Vazquez-Nunez E, Pena-Castro JM, Fernandez-Luqueno F, Cejudo E, de La Rosa-Alvarez MG, Garcia-Castaneda MC. A review on genetically modified plants designed to phytoremediate polluted soils: biochemical responses and international regulation. Pedosphere, 2018, 28(5697-712

[193] Venturas MD, Sperry JS, Hacke UG. Plant xylem hydraulics: What we understand, current research, and future challenges. J Integr Plant Biol, 2017, 59(6356-389

[194] Verkleij JAC, Golan-Goldhirsh A, Antosiewisz DM, Schwitzguébel J-P, Schröder P. Dualities in plant tolerance to pollutants and their uptake and translocation to the upper plant parts. Environ Exp Bot, 2009, 67(1): 10-22

[195] Vetrimurugan E, Brindha K, Elango L, Ndwandwe OM. Human exposure risk to heavy metals through groundwater used for drinking in an intensively irrigated river delta. Appl Water Sci, 2016, 7(6): 3267-3280

[196] Vidican R, Mihăiescu T, Pleșa A, Mălinaș A, Pop B-A. Investigations concerning heavy metals dynamics in reynoutria japonica houtt-soil interactions. Toxics, 2023, 11(4): 323

[197] Vigil M, Marey-Pérez MF, Martinez Huerta G, Álvarez Cabal V. Is phytoremediation without biomass valorization sustainable? — Comparative LCA of landfilling vs. anaerobic co-digestion. Sci Total Environ, 2015, 505: 844-850

[198] Vocciante M, Caretta A, Bua L, Bagatin R, Franchi E, Petruzzelli G, Ferro S. Enhancements in phytoremediation technology: environmental assessment including different options of biomass disposal and comparison with a consolidated approach. J Environ Manage, 2019, 237: 560-568

[199] Wang P, Hu Y, Cheng H. Municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration fly ash as an important source of heavy metal pollution in China. Environ Pollut, 2019, 252: 461-475

[200] Wang X, Fernandes de Souza M, Li H, Tack FMG, Ok YS, Meers E. Zn phytoextraction and recycling of alfalfa biomass as potential Zn-biofortified feed crop. Sci Total Environ, 2021, 760 143424

[201] Wang Y, Chen Y, Wu W. Potassium and phosphorus transport and signaling in plants. J Integr Plant Biol, 2021, 63(134-52

[202] Wang L, Huang J, Li G, Luo J, Bolan NS, Hou D. Long-term immobilization of soil metalloids under simulated aging: Experimental and modeling approach. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 806 150501

[203] Wang Q, Wang B, Ma Y, Zhang X, Lyu W, Chen M. Stabilization of heavy metals in biochar derived from plants in antimony mining area and its environmental implications. Environ Pollut, 2022, 300 118902

[204] Wang X, Fernandes de Souza M, Mench MJ, Li H, Ok YS, Tack FMG, Meers E. Cu phytoextraction and biomass utilization as essential trace element feed supplements for livestock. Environ Pollut, 2022, 294 118627

[205] Wang H, Wang L, Yang B, Li X, Hou R, Hu Z, Hou D. Sustainable soil remediation using mineral and hydrogel: field evidence for metalloid immobilization and soil health improvement. J Soils Sediments, 2023, 23(8): 3060-3070

[206] Wang J, Yuan J, Hou Q, Yang Z, You Y, Yu T, Ji J, Dou L, Ha X, Sheng W, Liu X. Distribution of potentially toxic elements in soils and sediments in Pearl River Delta, China: Natural versus anthropogenic source discrimination. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 903 166573

[207] Wang L, Deng J, Yang X, Hou R, Hou D. Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality. Carbon Res, 2023, 2(1): 2

[208] Wang L, Hu Z, Yin H, Bradford SA, Luo J, Hou D. Aging of colloidal contaminants and pathogens in the soil environment: Implications for nanoplastic and COVID-19 risk mitigation. Soil Use Manag, 2023

[209] Wei Z, Van Le Q, Peng W, Yang Y, Yang H, Gu H, Lam SS, Sonne C. A review on phytoremediation of contaminants in air, water and soil. J Hazard Mater, 2021, 403 123658

[210] Weyens N, van der Lelie D, Taghavi S, Newman L, Vangronsveld J. Exploiting plant–microbe partnerships to improve biomass production and remediation. Trends Biotechnol, 2009, 27(10591-598

[211] Wiche O, Székely B, Kummer N-A, Moschner C, Heilmeier H. Effects of intercropping of oat (Avena sativa L) with white lupin (Lupinus albus L) on the mobility of target elements for phytoremediation and phytomining in soil solution. Int J Phytoremed, 2016, 18(9): 900-907

[212] Włóka D, Placek A, Smol M, Rorat A, Hutchison D, Kacprzak M. The efficiency and economic aspects of phytoremediation technology using Phalaris arundinacea L. and Brassica napus L. combined with compost and nano SiO2 fertilization for the removal of PAH’s from soil. J Environ Manage, 2019, 234: 311-319

[213] Wu Z, Bañuelos GS, Lin Z-Q, Liu Y, Yuan L, Yin X, Li M. Biofortification and phytoremediation of selenium in China. Front Plant Sci, 2015, 6: 136

[214] Wyszkowska J, Borowik A, Zaborowska M, Kucharski J. Calorific value of zea mays biomass derived from soil contaminated with chromium (VI) disrupting the soil’s biochemical properties. Energies, 2023, 16(9): 3788

[215] Xiao J, Li X, Cao Y, Chen G. Does micro/nano biochar always good to phytoremediation? A case study from multiple metals contaminated acidic soil using Salix jiangsuensis' 172'. Carbon Res, 2023, 2(121

[216] Xie C, Xiao Y, He C, Liu W-S, Tang Y-T, Wang S, van der Ent A, Morel JL, Simonnot M-O, Qiu R-L. Selective recovery of rare earth elements and value-added chemicals from the Dicranopteris linearis bio-ore produced by agromining using green fractionation. J Hazard Mater, 2023, 443 130253

[217] Xu P, Sun C-X, Ye X-Z, Xiao W-D, Zhang Q, Wang Q. The effect of biochar and crop straws on heavy metal bioavailability and plant accumulation in a Cd and Pb polluted soil. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2016, 132: 94-100

[218] Xue Z, Dong L, Zhong Z, Lai X, Huang Y. Capture effect of Pb, Zn, Cd and Cr by intercalation-exfoliation modified montmorillonite during coal combustion. Fuel, 2021, 290 119980

[219] Yadav M, Singh G, Jadeja RN. Phytoremediation for heavy metal removal. Poll Water Manag, 2021

[220] Yan A, Wang Y, Tan SN, Mohd Yusof ML, Ghosh S, Chen Z. Phytoremediation: a promising approach for revegetation of heavy metal-polluted land. Front Plant Sci, 2020, 11: 359

[221] Yan Y, Yang J, Wan X, Shi H, Yang J, Ma C, Lei M, Chen T. Temporal and spatial differentiation characteristics of soil arsenic during the remediation process of Pteris vittata L and Citrus reticulata Blanco intercropping. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 812: 152475

[222] Yang Y, Zeng Z, Zhang C, Huang D, Zeng G, Xiao R, Lai C, Zhou C, Guo H, Xue W, Cheng M, Wang W, Wang J. Construction of iodine vacancy-rich BiOI/Ag@AgI Z-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts for visible-light-driven tetracycline degradation: Transformation pathways and mechanism insight. Chem Eng J, 2018, 349: 808-821

[223] Yang K, Zhu L, Zhao Y, Wei Z, Chen X, Yao C, Meng Q, Zhao R. A novel method for removing heavy metals from composting system: the combination of functional bacteria and adsorbent materials. Biores Technol, 2019, 293 122095

[224] Yang Y, Ge Y, Tu P, Zeng H, Zhou X, Zou D, Wang K, Zeng Q. Phytoextraction of Cd from a contaminated soil by tobacco and safe use of its metal-enriched biomass. J Hazard Mater, 2019, 363: 385-393

[225] Yang X, Wang L, Guo J, Wang H, Mašek O, Wang H, Bolan NS, Alessi DS, Hou D. Aging features of metal(loid)s in biochar-amended soil: effects of biochar type and aging method. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 815: 152922

[226] Yang Z, Yang F, Liu J-L, Wu H-T, Yang H, Shi Y, Liu J, Zhang Y-F, Luo Y-R, Chen K-M. Heavy metal transporters: Functional mechanisms, regulation, and application in phytoremediation. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 809 151099

[227] Yao X, Saikawa E, Warner S, D’Souza PE, Ryan PB, Barr DB. Phytoremediation of lead-contaminated soil in the westside of atlanta GA. GeoHealth, 2023

[228] Ying S, Guan Z, Ofoegbu PC, Clubb P, Rico C, He F, Hong J. Green synthesis of nanoparticles: current developments and limitations. Environ Technol Innov, 2022, 26 102336

[229] Yousaf U, Ali Khan AH, Farooqi A, Muhammad YS, Barros R, Tamayo-Ramos JA, Iqbal M, Yousaf S. Interactive effect of biochar and compost with Poaceae and Fabaceae plants on remediation of total petroleum hydrocarbons in crude oil contaminated soil. Chemosphere, 2022, 286 131782

[230] Yuan M, Liu C, Liu W-S, Guo M-N, Morel JL, Huot H, Yu H-J, Tang Y-T, Qiu R-L. Accumulation and fractionation of rare earth elements (REEs) in the naturally grown Phytolacca americana L in southern China. Int J Phytoremed, 2018, 20(5415-423

[231] Zeng K, Li R, Minh DP, Weiss-Hortala E, Nzihou A, Zhong D, Flamant G. Characterization of char generated from solar pyrolysis of heavy metal contaminated biomass. Energy, 2020, 206 118128

[232] Zhang Z-W, Dong Y-Y, Feng L-Y, Deng Z-L, Xu Q, Tao Q, Wang C-Q, Chen Y-E, Yuan M, Yuan S. Selenium enhances cadmium accumulation capability in two mustard family species-brassica napus and B. juncea. Plants, 2020, 9(7904

[233] Zhang J, Wu S, Xu J, Liang P, Wang M, Naidu R, Liu Y, Man YB, Wong MH, Wu S. Comparison of ashing and pyrolysis treatment on cadmium/zinc hyperaccumulator plant: Effects on bioavailability and metal speciation in solid residues and risk assessment. Environ Pollut, 2021, 272 116039

[234] Zhang H, Xu Y, Kanyerere T, Wang Y, Sun M. Washing reagents for remediating heavy-metal-contaminated soil: a review. Front Earth Sci, 2022

[235] Zhang Y, Tan X, Duan G, Cui J, Ren M, Cao J, Xu C, Yang W, Lin A. Magnesium slag for remediation of cadmium- and arsenic-contaminated paddy soil: A field study. Soil Use Manag, 2022, 38(31470-1480

[236] Zhang Z, Huang Y, Zhu Z, Yu M, Gu L, Wang X, Liu Y, Wang R. Effect of CaO and montmorillonite additive on heavy metals behavior and environmental risk during sludge combustion. Environ Pollut, 2022, 312 120024

[237] Zhao F-J, Tang Z, Song J-J, Huang X-Y, Wang P. Toxic metals and metalloids: uptake, transport, detoxification, phytoremediation, and crop improvement for safer food. Mol Plant, 2022, 15(1): 27-44

[238] Zheljazkov VD, Craker LE, Xing B. Effects of Cd, Pb, and Cu on growth and essential oil contents in dill, peppermint, and basil. Environ Exp Bot, 2006, 58(1–3): 9-16

[239] Zhou L, Zhao Y, Wang S (2015) Cadmium transfer and detoxification mechanisms in a soil–mulberry–silkworm system: phytoremediation potential. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 22(22):18031–18039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5011-8

[240] Zhu J, Song Y, Wang L, Zhang Z, Gao J, Tsang DCW, Ok YS, Hou D. Green remediation of benzene contaminated groundwater using persulfate activated by biochar composite loaded with iron sulfide minerals. Chem Eng J, 2022, 429 132292

[241] Zine H, Hakkou R, Papazoglou EG, Elmansour A, Abrar F, Benzaazoua M. Revegetation and ecosystem reclamation of post-mined land: toward sustainable mining. Int J Environ Sci Technol, 2024, 21(15): 9775-9798

Funding

University of Western Australia

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Crown