From sludge to resource recovery: geotextiles for efficient dewatering and sustainable utilization of faecal sludge

Abstract

Faecal sludge (FS) management presents an increasing challenge in the global south, demanding innovative approaches for effective dewatering and sustainable resource recovery. Geotextiles, with their compact structure, ease of installation, and effective dewatering capabilities, are environmentally friendly solutions for FS dewatering and resource recovery. However, a comprehensive review of geotextiles’ use in FS dewatering is lacking, presenting challenges to understanding their utility and potential scale. Our paper examines and discusses the suitability of various geotextiles in dewatering FS, contaminant removal efficiency, underlying mechanisms, and end uses of resulting biosolids and filtrate. Only a few studies have investigated using geotextiles for FS treatment, revealing that with synthetic conditioners, geotextiles achieve high dewatering and filtration efficiencies (> 35%). FS moisture content, geotextile apparent opening size (AOS), and permittivity influence filtration and dewatering efficiencies; higher moisture content reduces filtration efficiency and increases dewatering efficiency. At the optimal moisture content, the filtration efficiency equals dewatering efficiency. Woven geotextiles have higher tensile strength (36–201.4 KN/m) than non-woven geotextiles (~ 50 KN/m), making them more suitable for dewatering large volumes of FS. The steps involved in the dewatering process include filtration, consolidation, biofilm formation, and clogging. Future research in FS dewatering with geotextiles includes exploring the use of bioengineered microorganisms for bio-flocculation of FS, understanding the dynamics of biofilm formation during dewatering, and hydrogen production from dewatered FS. The insights from this review aim to promote broader adoption of FS dewatering using geotextiles, especially in resource-scarce and space-limited settings.

Keywords

Geotextiles / Dewatering / Faecal sludge / Removal efficiency / Mechanisms / Engineering / Environmental Engineering

References

[1] AbbarB, AlemA, PantetA, MarcotteS, AhfirN-D, DuriattiD. Experimental investigation on removal of suspended particles from water using flax fibre geotextiles. Environ Technol, 2017, 38232964-2978.

[2] AbbarB, AlemA, PantetA, MarcotteS, AhfirN-D, WangH, OuahbiT, DucheminB, DuriattiD. Nonwoven flax fibres geotextiles effects on solute heavy metals transport in porous media. Environ Technol, 2018, 424558-570.

[3] AbbarB, AlemA, PantetA, AhfirND, MarcotteS, WangH, DucheminB. Effect of natural geotextile on the cotransport of heavy metals (Cu(2+), pb(2+), and zn(2+)) and kaolinite particles. Environ Technol, 2021, 424558-570.

[4] AdachiVY, RodríguezJS, MottaMF, PedrosoGO, HeinLR, FélixEF. Sediment barriers’ performance in the laboratory: evaluation of clogging and filtration characteristics in geotextiles subjected to discharge cycles. Water, 2024, 161107.

[5] AfolabiOO, SohailM. Microwaving human faecal sludge as a viable sanitation technology option for treatment and value recovery–a critical review. J Environ Manage, 2017, 187: 401-415.

[6] Aitchison P, Giorgio V, Mathieson G (2019) Geotextile with conductive properties. Google Patents. https://patents.google.com/patent/EP3411882A4/en Accessed 10 July 2024

[7] AliMEM, MoniemSMA, HemdanBA, AmmarNS, IbrahimHS. Innovative polymeric inorganic coagulant-flocculant for wastewater purification with simultaneous microbial reduction in treated effluent and sludge. S Afr J Chem Eng, 2022, 42: 127-137.

[8] AlimahmoodiM, YerushalmiL, MulliganCN. Development of biofilm on geotextile in a new multi-zone wastewater treatment system for simultaneous removal of Cod, nitrogen and phosphorus. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 107: 78-86.

[9] AlnawajhaMM, KurniawanSB, ImronMF, AbdullahSRS, HasanHA, OthmanAR. Plant-based coagulants/flocculants: characteristics, mechanisms, and possible utilization in treating aquaculture effluent and benefiting from the recovered nutrients. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2022, 293958430-58453.

[10] AnandS. Designer natural fibre geotextiles—a new concept. Ind J Fiber Text Res, 2008, 333339-344

[11] AndriessenN, WardBJ, StrandeL. To char or not to char? Review of technologies to produce solid fuels for resource recovery from faecal sludge. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2019, 92210-224.

[12] Aparicio-ArdilaMA, Souza, STd, Silva, JLd, ValentinCA, DantasADB. Geotextile tube dewatering performance assessment: an experimental study of sludge dewatering generated at a water treatment plant. Sustainability, 2020, 12198129.

[13] AryalA, SathasivanA, ZhanW. Effect of suspended solids in secondary wastewater effluent on doc removal by enhanced coagulation. Desal Water Treat, 2011, 321–327-32.

[14] Atwijukye O, Kulabako R, Niwagaba C, Sugden S (2018) Low cost faecal sludge dewatering and carbonisation for production of fuel briquettes. Paper presented at: 41st WEDC International Conference. Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya. https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/41/Atwijukye-2880.pdf

[15] AvanciniLLS, MullerM, VidalDM. Application of polyelectrolytes for improving the dewatering performance of drinking water treatment sludge using geotextiles. Revista Ambiente Água, 2021, 165e2723.

[16] AzarmaneshR, ZonooziMH, GhiasinejadH. Characterization of food waste and sewage sludge mesophilic anaerobic co-digestion under different mixing ratios of primary sludge, secondary sludge and food waste. Biomass Bioenerg, 2020, 139: 105610.

[17] Baker KB, Chastain JP, Dodd R, Moore KP (2002) Treatment of swine and dairy lagoon sludge utilizing geotextile filtration. Paper presented at: ASAE Paper #024128. St. Joseph, MI ASAE. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.10497

[18] BankaN, LankeM, ChoudhuryAR, SarkarJ, AnandapuS, BanerjeeR. Evaluation of the functionality of geotube^® based physicochemical faecal sludge treatment: a cursory alternate. Int J Plant Environ, 2020, 62122-128.

[19] Banks IJ (2014) To assess the impact of black soldier fly (hermetia illucens) larvae on faecal reduction in pit latrines. Dissertation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine

[20] BateganyaNL, BeardsleyR, LebuS, AtimJ, LilianKS, LahaiF, MadeiraMM, MulengaOC, MangaM. Shifting from traditional infrastructure planning to a collaborative approach: lessons from the freetown sanitation master plan. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2023, 1312974-985.

[21] BerendesDM, SumnerTA, BrownJM. Safely managed sanitation for all means fecal sludge management for at least 1.8 billion people in low and middle income countries. Environ Sci Technol, 2017, 5153074-3083.

[22] BezgovšekŠ, GorjancDŠ, PulkoB, LenartS. Influence of structural parameters of nonwoven geotextiles on separation and filtration in road construction. Autex Res J, 2020, 204449-460.

[23] BilisikK, SyduzzamanMMaityS, RanaS, PanditP, SinghaK. 12 - knitted geotextiles. Advanced knitting technology, 2022CambridgeWoodhead Publishing345-394.

[24] Bossy K, Anderson T, Kobilnyk T (2023) Dewatering and containment of heavy-metal contaminated sediments with geotextile containers and polymers: Developing and validating system performance and design. Paper presented at: British Columbia Mine Reclamation Symposium. British Columbia, Canada. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0437479

[25] Bridson-Pateman E (2013) Biofilm-enhanced treatment for artic wastewater stabilization ponds using geotextile substrate. Dissertation, Dalhousie University

[26] BrostowW, LoblandHH, PalS, SinghRP. Polymeric flocculants for wastewater and industrial effluent treatment. J Mater Educ, 2009, 313–4157-166

[27] BulutA, SengulT. Investigation of the dewatering process with geotextile tubes by sedimentation, one- and two-dimensional filtration test methods. Arab J Sci Eng, 2024, 6: 1-18.

[28] CantréS, SaathoffF. Design parameters for geosynthetic dewatering tubes derived from pressure filtration tests. Geosynth Int, 2011, 18390-103.

[29] CaponeD, BarkerT, CummingO, FlemisterA, GeasonR, KimE, KneeJ, LindenY, MangaM, MeldrumM, et al. . Persistent ascaris transmission is possible in urban areas even where sanitation coverage is high. Environ Sci Technol, 2022, 562215969-15980.

[30] CarneiroJR, AlmeidaPJ, LopesML. Laboratory evaluation of interactions in the degradation of a polypropylene geotextile in marine environments. Advan Mater Sci Eng, 2018, 10: 1-10.

[31] ChenY, ChengJJ, CreamerKS. Inhibition of anaerobic digestion process: a review. Bioresour Technol, 2008, 99104044-4064.

[32] ChenY, ZhaoM, LvY, TingZJ, ZhaoS, LiuZ, ZhangX, YangY, YouY, YuanW. Utilization of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash as construction materials based on geopolymerization. Res Conser Recyc Advan, 2023, 19: 200162

[33] ChengS, YeZ, LiX, MangaM, DoreaC, ChenZ, LiZ, MaX, MangH-P, LiT. Constructing a toilet standard system for the toilet revolution in China. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2024, 144291-301.

[34] ChikwueM, OkoraforO, OkaforV, DuruanyimI, OfomaA. Design of waste stabilization pond system for faecal sludge manangement in choba community, rivers state, Nigeria. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng, 2015, 5: 4-9

[35] ChoySY, PrasadKMN, WuTY, RaghunandanME, RamananRN. Utilization of plant-based natural coagulants as future alternatives towards sustainable water clarification. J Environ Sci, 2014, 26112178-2189.

[36] ChristianeQN, AmankwahE, AwafoEA, SodreS. Valorization of faecal sludge and organic waste in bobo-dioulasso, Burkina Faso to improve sanitation, enhance soil and improve agricultural productivity. Energy Rep, 2023, 9: 4951-4959.

[37] CofieOO, AgbottahS, StraussM, EssekuH, MontangeroA, AwuahE, KoneD. Solid–liquid separation of faecal sludge using drying beds in Ghana: implications for nutrient recycling in urban agriculture. Water Res, 2006, 40175-82.

[38] CofieO, KoneD, RothenbergerS, MoserD, ZubrueggC. Co-composting of faecal sludge and organic solid waste for agriculture: process dynamics. Water Res, 2009, 43184665-4675.

[39] Colmanetti J, Palmeira E (2002) A study on geotextile-leachate interaction in large laboratory tests. Paper presented at: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Geosynthetics, Nice, France

[40] Conaway, K, Lebu, S, Heilferty, K, Salzberg, A, Manga, M (2023) On-site sanitation system emptying practices and influential factors in Asian low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Hyg Environ Health Advan 6:100050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heha.2023.100050

[41] Cordonnier J, Saygin D Green hydrogen opportunities for emerging and developing economies. OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 205, Publishing OECD (2022) Paris https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/paper/53ad9f22-en Accessed 26 July 2024

[42] da SilvaJLV, LodiPC. Evaluation of superficial and internal clogging of geotextiles. Int J Civ Eng, 2020, 18101125-1137.

[43] DasTK. Ultraviolet disinfection application to a wastewater treatment plant. Clean Prod Process, 2001, 3269-80.

[44] De Jimenez S (2020) FJJCP Green hydrogen in developing countries. World Bank Group. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1249614/green-hydrogen-in-developing-countries/ Accessed 24 June 2024

[45] De SouzaF, RoeckerP, SilveiraD, SensM, CamposL. Influence of slow sand filter cleaning process type on filter media biomass: backwashing versus scraping. Water Res, 2021, 189: 116581.

[46] DemirbasA, EdrisG, AlalayahWM. Sludge production from municipal wastewater treatment in sewage treatment plant. Energy Sources Part A: Rec Util Environ Eff, 2017, 3910999-1006.

[47] DeshmukhPR, GulhaneML. Feasibility study of continuous flow through vermicomposting unit for government college of engineering amravati. Int Res J Eng Technol, 2020, 78242-245

[48] DienerS, Studt SolanoNM, Roa GutiérrezF, ZurbrüggC, TocknerK. Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Val, 2011, 2: 357-363.

[49] DingZ, WangC, BabarAA, LiuG, LiuY, GuanJ, WangX, YuJ, DingB. Tailoring high efficiency polypropylene based composite geotextiles for dewatering fly ash slurries. Comp Commun, 2021, 26: 100794

[50] DodaneP, BassanMStrandeL, RonteltapM, BrdjanovicD. Settling-thickening tanks. Faecal sludge management: systems approach for implementation and operation, 2014UKIWA Publishing London123-139

[51] DodaneP, RoteltapMStrandeL, RonteltapM, BrdjanovicD. Unplanted drying beds. Faecal sludge management: systems approach for implementation and operation, 2014London, UKIWA Publishing141-154

[52] DolleC, NehaN, CoutanceauC. Electrochemical hydrogen production from biomass. Curr Opin Electrochem, 2022, 31: 100841.

[53] du PlessisA. Persistent degradation: global water quality challenges and required actions. One Earth, 2022, 52129-131.

[54] DufrecheS, HernandezR, FrenchT, SparksD, ZappiM, AlleyE. Extraction of lipids from municipal wastewater plant microorganisms for production of biodiesel. J Am Oil Chem Soc, 2007, 842181-187.

[55] EbelingJM, WelshCF, RishelKL. Performance evaluation of an inclined belt filter using coagulation/flocculation aids for the removal of suspended solids and phosphorus from microscreen backwash effluent. Aqua Eng, 2006, 35161-77.

[56] Edzwald JK, Van Benschoten JE (1990) Aluminum coagulation of natural organic matter. Paper presented at: Chemical Water and Wastewater Treatment: Proceedings of the 4th Gothenburg Symposium October 1990, Madrid, Spain

[57] FarzadkiaM, VananiA, GolbazS, SajadiH, BazrafshanE. Characterization and evaluation of treatability of wastewater generated in khuzestan livestock slaughterhouses and assessing of their wastewater treatment systems. Glob Nest J, 2016, 181108-118.

[58] Fowler J, Bagby RM, Trainer E (1996) Dewatering sewage sludge with geotextile tubes. Paper presented at: Proceedings of the 49th Canadian Geotechnical Conference. Canadian Geotechnical Society, St. John’s, NL, Canada

[59] FritzscheJ, MorathB, MorgenrothE, StrandeL. Towards low-footprint dewatering of fecal sludge in dense urban areas. Sandec news, 2023, 24: 68

[60] GautamR, GhoshU. Hydrogen production in microbial electrolysis cell and reactor digestate valorization for biochar – a noble attempt towards circular economy. Int J Hydrog Energy, 2023, 52: 649-668.

[61] GautamR, RessNVW, GhoshRS. Hydrogen production in microbial electrolysis cell and reactor digestate valorization for biochar–a noble attempt towards circular economy. Int J Hydrog Energy, 2024, 52: 649-668.

[62] GernaeyKV, Van LoosdrechtMC, HenzeM, LindM, JørgensenSB. Activated sludge wastewater treatment plant modelling and simulation: state of the art. Environ Model Soft, 2004, 199763-783.

[63] GhernaoutD, GhernaoutB. Sweep flocculation as a second form of charge neutralisation—a review. Desal Water Treat, 2012, 441–315-28.

[64] GillR, HerringtonT. The effect of colloid concentration and Ph on kaolin suspensions flocculated with cationic polyacrylamides of high molar mass. Coll Surf, 1989, 42123-37.

[65] GoldM, DayerP, FayeMCAS, ClairG, SeckA, NiangS, MorgenrothE, StrandeL. Locally produced natural conditioners for dewatering of faecal sludge. Environ Technol, 2016, 37212802-2814.

[66] GoldM, DdibaDIW, SeckA, SekigongoP, DieneA, DiawS, NiangS, NiwagabaC, StrandeL. Faecal sludge as a solid industrial fuel: a pilot-scale study. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2017, 72243-251.

[67] GoldM, CunninghamM, BleulerM, ArnheiterR, SchönbornA, NiwagabaC, StrandeL. Operating parameters for three resource recovery options from slow-pyrolysis of faecal sludge. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2018, 84707-717.

[68] Guimarães, MGA, Urashima, DC (2013) Dewatering sludge in geotextile closed systems: Brazilian experiences. Soils Rocks 36(3):251–263.

[69] GuimarãesMGA, UrashimaDC, VidalDM. Dewatering of sludge from a water treatment plant in Geotextile closed systems. Geosynth Int, 2014, 215310-320.

[70] HasanR. An overview of geotextiles: industrial application in technical textiles. J Text Sci Fash Technol, 2020, 441-7.

[71] HeinzeT, HaackV, RensingS. Starch derivatives of high degree of functionalization. 7. Preparation of cationic 2-hydroxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride starches. Starch‐Stärke, 2004, 567288-296.

[72] HibinoT, KobayashiK, ItoM, MaQ, NagaoM, FukuiM, TeranishiS. Efficient hydrogen production by direct electrolysis of waste biomass at intermediate temperatures. ACS Sus Chem Eng, 2018, 679360-9368.

[73] HibinoT, KobayashiK, ItoM, NagaoM, FukuiM, TeranishiS. Direct electrolysis of waste newspaper for sustainable hydrogen production: an oxygen-functionalized porous carbon anode. Appl Cat B: Environ, 2018, 231: 191-199.

[74] HuH, LiX, WuS, YangC. Sustainable livestock wastewater treatment via phytoremediation: current status and future perspectives. Bioresour Technol, 2020, 315: 123809.

[75] IgwegbeCA, OnukwuliOD. Removal of total dissolved solids (tds) from aquaculture wastewater by coagulation-flocculation process using sesamum indicum extract: Effect of operating parameters and coagulation-flocculation kinetics. Pharm Chem J, 2019, 6432-45

[76] JainM, UpadhyayM, GuptaAK, GhosalPS. A review on the treatment of septage and faecal sludge management: a special emphasis on constructed wetlands. J Environ Manage, 2022, 315: 115143.

[77] Jones DL, Davis JE, Curtis WR, Pollock CE (2006) Geotextile tube structures guidelines for contract specifications US Army Corps of Engineers. CHETN-II-50 https://frtr.gov/matrix/documents/Dredged-Material-Processing-Technologies/2006-Geotextile-Tube-Structures-Guidelines-for-Contract-Specifications.pdf Accessed 29 July 2024

[78] JotisankasaA, RurgchaisriN. Shear strength of interfaces between unsaturated soils and composite geotextile with polyester yarn reinforcement. Geotext Geomembr, 2018, 463338-353.

[79] JunglenK, Rhodes-DickerL, WardBJ, GitauE, MwalugongoW, StradleyL, ThomasE. Characterization and prediction of fecal sludge parameters and settling behavior in informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya. Sustainability, 2020, 12219040.

[80] KaradoğanÜ, ÇevikbilenG, KorkutS, PasaogluME, TeymurB. Dewatering of golden horn sludge with geotextile tube and determination of optimum operating conditions: a novel approach. Mar Georesour Geotech, 2022, 407782-794.

[81] KarrPR, KeinathTM. Influence of particle size on sludge dewaterability. Water Pollut Control Fed, 1978, 5081911-1930

[82] KhachanM, BhatiaS, MaurerB, GustafsonA. Dewatering and utilization of fly ash slurries using geotextile tubes. Ind Geotech J, 2012, 42: 194-205.

[83] KhachanMM, BhatiaSK, BaderRA, CetinD, RamaraoBV. Cationic starch flocculants as an alternative to synthetic polymers in geotextile tube dewatering. Geosynth Int, 2014, 212119-136.

[84] KiffleZB, BhatiaSK, LebsterGE. Dewatering of mine tailing slurries using geotextile tube: case histories. Int J Geosynth Ground Eng, 2023, 915-10.

[85] KiluchaM, ChengS, MinzaS, NasiruddinSM, VelempiniK, LiX, WangX, MokeiraK, LiZ. Insights into the anaerobic digestion of faecal sludge and food waste in tanzania. Front Environ Sci, 2022, 10: 1294.

[86] KimHJ, ParkTW, DinoyPR, KimHS. Performance and design of modified geotextile tubes during filling and consolidation. Geosynth Int, 2021, 282125-143.

[87] KoernerR, KoernerG. Performance tests for the selection of fabrics and additives when used as geotextile bags, containers, and tubes. Geotech Test J, 2010, 333236-242.

[88] Koerner RM, Koerner GR, Huang W (2016) Geotextile tubes for dewatering and decontamination of fine-grained soils. In: Koerner RM (ed) Geotextiles from design to applications. Woodhead Publishing Cambridge, pp 483–494

[89] KoernerR, HsuanY, KoernerG. Lifetime predictions of exposed geotextiles and geomembranes. Geosynth Int, 2017, 242198-212.

[90] KopiasK, MikołajczykZ, KowalskiK. Knitted geotextiles for road reinforcement. Fibers Text East Europe, 2011, 19680-82

[91] Kossendey T, Gartung E, Schmidt S (1996) Microbiological influences on the long-term performance of geotextile filters. Paper presented at: Proc. Geofilters. 96:115–124

[92] KruegerBC, FowlerGD, TempletonMR, SeptienS. Faecal sludge pyrolysis: understanding the relationships between organic composition and thermal decomposition. J Environ Manage, 2021, 298: 113456.

[93] Kumar V, Othman N, Asharuddin S (2017) Applications of natural coagulants to treat wastewater – a review. Paper presented at: International Symposium on Civil and Environmental Engineering 2016 (ISCEE 2016), Melaka, Malaysia

[94] KurniawanSB, ImronMF, AbdullahSRS, OthmanAR, PurwantiIF, HasanHA. Treatment of real aquaculture effluent using bacteria-based bioflocculant produced by serratia marcescens. J Water Process Eng, 2022, 47: 102708.

[95] Kutay ME, Aydilek AH (2004) Retention performance of geotextile containers confining geomaterials. Geosynth Int 11(2):100–113. https://doi.org/10.1680/GEIN.11.2.100.46853

[96] LakavathuS, ReddyVK, SinghN, KambleP, JadhavJ, ChoudhuryAR, PalaniSG. Feasibility study of faecal sludge treatment by geotube and jute tube–based technologies. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2023, 3059124382-124400.

[97] LalanderC, DienerS, MagriME, ZurbrüggC, LindströmA, VinneråsB. Faecal sludge management with the larvae of the black soldier fly (hermetia illucens)—from a hygiene aspect. Sci Total Environ, 2013, 458: 312-318.

[98] LalanderCH, FidjelandJ, DienerS, ErikssonS, VinneråsB. High waste-to-biomass conversion and efficient salmonella spp. Reduction using black soldier fly for waste recycling. Agronom Sus Dev, 2015, 35: 261-271.

[99] LawsonC. Geotextile containment for hydraulic and environmental engineering. Geosynth Int, 2008, 156384-427.

[100] LawsonCRKoernerRM. Geotextiles in marine engineering. Geotextiles, 2016AmsterdamElsevier435-482.

[101] LebuS, MuoghaluCC, SalzbergA, SemiyagaS, NiwagabaCB, MangaMEvaluation of social acceptance and market for human excreta-derived products. Material and energy recovery from solid waste for a circular economy, 2024FloridaCRC292-315.

[102] LeeCS, RobinsonJ, ChongMF. A review on application of flocculants in wastewater treatment. Process Saf Environ Protect, 2014, 926489-508.

[103] LiY, NanX, LiD, WangL, XuR, LiQ. Advances in the treatment of phosphorus-containing wastewater. IOP Conf Series: Earth Environ Sci, 2021, 6471012163.

[104] LickWSediment and contaminant transport in surface waters, 2008Florida, USACRC.

[105] LohriCR, RodićL, ZurbrüggC. Feasibility assessment tool for urban anaerobic digestion in developing countries. J Environ Manage, 2013, 126: 122-131.

[106] LuC, XuZ, ZhangY, DongB. Rapid and clean dewatering of dredged sediment via coupling of a two-step flocculation and geotextile filtration. Chem Eng J, 2024, 480: 147604.

[107] MaQ, ShulerPJ, AftenCW, TangY. Theoretical studies of hydrolysis and stability of polyacrylamide polymers. Poly Degrad stab, 2015, 121: 69-77.

[108] MaheshwariBK, GunjagiDA. Filtration and clogging behavior of geotextiles with roorkee soils. Geotech Geo Eng, 2008, 26: 101-107.

[109] MahmoudA, OlivierJ, VaxelaireJ, HoadleyAFASharmaSK, SanghiR. Advances in mechanical dewatering of wastewater sludge treatment. Wastewater reuse and management, 2013DordrechtSpringer Netherlands253-303.

[110] Mandal S, Kalakandan SK, Sugumar A (2024) 17 - effective packaging and handling of food grains for quality and safety management. In: Sunil CK, Athmaselvi KA, Venkatachalapathy N, Anandharamakrishnan C, Balasubramaniam VM (eds) Unit operations in food grain processing, Academic Press, pp 513–546

[111] Manga M (2017) The feasibility of co-composting as an upscale treatment method for faecal sludge in urban africa Dissertation, University of Leeds. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/16997/

[112] Manga M, Evans B, Camargo-Valero MA, Horan N (2016) The fate of helminth eggs during the co-composting of faecal sludge with chicken feathers and market waste. Paper presented at: 13th IWA Specialized Conference on Small Water and Wastewater Systems (SWWS) and 5th IWA Specialized Conference on Resources-Oriented Sanitation (ROS), September 2016, Aegli Zoppiou, Athens - Greece. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/132633/

[113] MangaM, Camargo-ValeroMA, EvansBE. Inactivation of viable ascaris eggs during faecal sludge co-composting with chicken feathers and market waste. Desal Water Treat, 2019, 163: 347-357.

[114] MangaM, MuoghaluC, Camargo-ValeroMA, EvansBE. Effect of turning frequency on the survival of fecal indicator microorganisms during aerobic composting of fecal sludge with sawdust. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2023, 2032668.

[115] ManianAP, PaulB, LanterH, BechtoldT, PhamT. Cellulose fibre degradation in cellulose/steel hybrid geotextiles under outdoor weathering conditions. Polymers, 2022, 14191-15.

[116] MasindiV, FoteinisS. Recovery of phosphate from real municipal wastewater and its application for the production of phosphoric acid. J Environ Chem Eng, 2021, 96106625.

[117] Mathew, B (2022) Is ‘low carbon hydrogen’ a useful option for Africa energy needs? White and Case. https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/low-carbon-hydrogen-useful-option-africas-energy-needs. Accessed 1 May 2024

[118] MaurerBW, GustafsonAC, BhatiaSK, PalominoAM. Geotextile dewatering of flocculated, fiber reinforced fly-ash slurry. Fuel, 2012, 97: 411-417.

[119] MauryaS, DavereyA. Evaluation of plant-based natural coagulants for municipal wastewater treatment. 3 Biotech, 2018, 8177.

[120] MazloomiK, GomesC. Hydrogen as an energy carrier: prospects and challenges. Renew Sus Energ Rev, 2012, 1653024-3033.

[121] MbouendeuLS, EmmanuelN, Douken Josiane SandrineN, Tako RaissaM. Low-cost onsite selection of suitable unplanted sand drying bed structure for faecal sludge treatment in less developed countries: a case study of yaounde in Cameroon. Water Pract Technol, 2022, 17122614-2624.

[122] MishraS, KumarR, KumarM. Use of treated sewage or wastewater as an irrigation water for agricultural purposes-environmental, health, and economic impacts. Total Environ Res Themes, 2023, 6: 100051.

[123] MishukMH, IslamSMT, AlamgirM. Comparison of the efficiency of deebag and jute made bag for faecal sludge management and wastewater treatment. PLoS ONE, 2020, 1511e0241046.

[124] MittalGS. Characterization of the effluent wastewater from abattoirs for land application. Food Rev Int, 2004, 203229-256.

[125] Mohd-SallehSNA, Mohd-ZinNS, OthmanN. A review of wastewater treatment using natural material and its potential as aid and composite coagulant. Sains Malaysiana, 2019, 481155-164.

[126] MukhtarS, LazenbyLA, RahmanS. Evaluation of a synthetic tube dewatering system for animal waste pollution control. Appl Eng Agric, 2007, 235669-675.

[127] MusprattAM, NakatoT, NiwagabaC, DioneH, KangJ, StupinL, RegulinskiJ, MbéguéréM, StrandeL. Fuel potential of faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2013, 42223-230.

[128] MuthukumaranA, IlamparuthiK. Laboratory studies on geotextile filters as used in geotextile tube dewatering. Geotext Geomembr, 2006, 244210-219.

[129] NarteyEG, AmoahP, Ofosu-BuduGK, MusprattA, PradhanS. Effects of co-composting of faecal sludge and agricultural wastes on tomato transplant and growth. Int J Recyc Org Waste Agric, 2017, 6: 23-36.

[130] NasirNM, YunosFHM, JusohHHW, MohammadA, LamSS, JusohA. Subtopic: advances in water and wastewater treatment harvesting of chlorella sp. Microalgae using aspergillus Niger as bio-flocculant for aquaculture wastewater treatment. J Environ Manage, 2019, 249: 109373.

[131] NguyenH-HT, NguyenHT, AhmedSF, RajamohanN, YusufM, SharmaA, ArunkumarP, DeepanrajB, TranH-T, Al-GheethiA, et al. . Emerging waste-to-wealth applications of fly ash for environmental remediation: a review. Environ Res, 2023, 227: 115800.

[132] NicholasHL, MabbettI, ApseyH, RobertsonI. Physico-chemical properties of waste derived biochar from community scale faecal sludge treatment plants. Gates Open Res, 2022, 6961-33.

[133] NiećJ, SpychałaM, MazurkiewiczJ. Septic tank effluent pretreatment using different filter materials as a prevention from clogging. Inżynieria i Ochrona Środowiska, 2016, 19115-25

[134] Nwaiwu N, Bello A (2011) Effect of moringa oleifera-alum ratios on surface water treatment in north east nigeria. Res J Appl Sci Eng Technol 3(6):505–512.

[135] OdeyEA, LiZ, ZhouX, KalakodioL. Fecal sludge management in developing urban centers: a review on the collection, treatment, and composting. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2017, 24: 23441-23452.

[136] OliveiraGLA, VidalDM. Influence of sand addition in the early stage retention of fine sludge dewatering by geotextile. Revista Ambiente Água, 2020, 15: e2527.

[137] Otterpohl R, Buzie C (2019) Treatment of the solid fraction. Source Separation and Decentralization for Wastewater Manage 259

[138] Palmeira EM, Remigio AF, Ramos ML, Bernardes RS (2008) A study on biological clogging of nonwoven geotextiles under leachate flow. Geotext Geomembr 26(3):205–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2007.10.006

[139] PealA, EvansB, BlackettI, HawkinsP, HeymansC. Fecal sludge management (fsm): Analytical tools for assessing fsm in cities. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2014, 43371-383.

[140] PelykLV, VasylechkoVO, KyrychenkoOV. Influence of biodestructors on the wear resistance of polyester geotextile materials. Coll Interf, 2019, 3121.

[141] PizzolattiBS, SoaresM, RomeroL, Luiz SensM. Comparison of backwashing with conventional cleaning methods in slow sand filters for small-scale communities. Desal Water Treat, 2015, 5411-7.

[142] PopatSC, YatesMV, DeshussesMA. Kinetics of inactivation of indicator pathogens during thermophilic anaerobic digestion. Water Res, 2010, 44205965-5972.

[143] Prasad VVB, Ishwarya MVS, Jayakrishnan P, Sathyan D, Muthukumar S (2023) Applications of natural geotextile in geotechnical engineering. Mater Today: 2023 Proc. ISSN 2214-7853, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.05.366

[144] ProngmaneeN, NoulmaneeA, DulyasucharitR, HorpibulsukS, ChaiJ-C. Durability against wetting and drying cycles and installation damage of water hyacinth geotextiles coated with natural rubber latex. J Mater Civ Eng, 2023, 351104023408.

[145] RadzuanRM, MohamedR, KassimAAA. Application of natural coagulants for wastewater treatment. Integr Water Res Protect, 2017, 1: 60-73

[146] RamzanMB, NaeemMS, ur RehmanA, RazaAAhmadS, RasheedA, NawabY. Fibers for geotextiles. Fibers for technical textiles, 2020ChamSpringer International Publishing129-149.

[147] Rhodes-DickerL, WardBJ, MwalugongoW, StradleyL. Permeable membrane dewatering of faecal sludge from pit latrines at a transfer station in Nairobi, Kenya. Environ Technol, 2022, 43142218-2229.

[148] Ricau MC (2023) Wash interventions in humanitarian contexts: Investigations at multiple stages of an intervention, with a focus on fsm activities and cholera context. Dissertation, Tufts University

[149] Rollin A (1996) Bacterial clogging of geotextile. Paper presented at: Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. Geo-filters. pp 125–134

[150] SamalK, MoulickS, MohapatraBG, SamantaS, SasidharanS, PrakashB, SarangiS. Design of faecal sludge treatment plant (fstp) and availability of its treatment technologies. Energy Nexus, 2022, 7: 100091.

[151] SankaPM, GermainO, KhalifaL, KomakechH, MagamboH. Production of low emission briquettes from faecal sludge as an alternative source of cooking energy. Res Square, 2023, 34: 1-25.

[152] SatyamurthyR, BhatiaS. Effect of polymer conditioning on dewatering characteristics of fine sediment slurry using geotextiles. Geosynth Int, 2009, 16283-96.

[153] SeckA, GoldM, NiangS, MbéguéréM, DiopC, StrandeL. Faecal sludge drying beds: increasing drying rates for fuel resource recovery in sub-saharan africa. J Water San Hyg Dev, 2014, 5172-80.

[154] SemiyagaS, OkureM, NiwagabaC, NyenjeP, KansiimeF. Dewaterability of faecal sludge and its implications on faecal sludge management in urban slums: faecal sludge pre-treatment by dewatering. Int J Environ Sci Technol (Tehran), 2017, 14: 151-164.

[155] Semiyaga S, Nakagiri A, Niwagaba CB, Manga M (2022) Application of anaerobic digestion in decentralized faecal sludge treatment plants. Anaerobic biodigesters for human waste treatment, 263–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4921-0_14

[156] ShaoL, WangX, XuH, HeP. Enhanced anaerobic digestion and sludge dewaterability by alkaline pretreatment and its mechanism. J Environ Sci, 2012, 24101731-1738.

[157] SharmaB, DhuldhoyaN, MerchantU. Flocculants—an ecofriendly approach. J Polym Environ, 2006, 14: 195-202.

[158] SharrerMJ, RishelK, SummerfeltS. Evaluation of geotextile filtration applying coagulant and flocculant amendments for aquaculture biosolids dewatering and phosphorus removal. Aqua Eng, 2009, 4011-10.

[159] Shirzad-SemsarM, ScholzS, KulickeW-M. Cationic starches as substitute for synthetic cationic flocculants in solid – liquid separation of harbor sludge. J Phys Chem B, 2007, 111298641-8648.

[160] SpychałaM, StarzykJ. Bacteria in non-woven textile filters for domestic wastewater treatment. Environ Technol, 2015, 368937-945.

[161] Sridharan A, Prakash K (2010) Coal ash utilization and sustainable waste management. Paper presented at: The first US-India workshop on global environmental engineering challenges, November 2010, New Delhi

[162] StrandeLStrandeL. The global situation. Faecal sludge management- systems approach implementation and operation, 2014UKIWA Publishing1-14

[163] StraussM, LarmieS, HeinssU. Treatment of sludges from on-site sanitation—low-cost options. Water Sci Technol, 1997, 356129-136.

[164] SummerfeltST, VinciBJ. Better management practices for recirculating aquaculture systems. Environ best Manage Practices Aquaculture, 2008, 17: 389-426.

[165] SunY, ZhengH, ZhaiJ, TengH, ZhaoC, ZhaoC, LiaoY. Effects of surfactants on the improvement of sludge dewaterability using cationic flocculants. PLoS ONE, 2014, 910e111036.

[166] TackleyHA, LakeCB, AlimohammadiM. Examining metal migration through geotextiles during dewatering. Geotext Geomembr, 2021, 49132-40.

[167] Tanasă, F, Nechifor, M, Ignat, M-E, Teacă, C-A (2022) Geotextiles—a versatile tool for environmental sensitive applications in geotechnical engineering. Textiles 2(2):189–208. https://www.mdpi.com/2673-7248/2/2/11

[168] TangJ, LiX, CaoC, LinM, QiuQ, XuY, RenY. Compositional variety of dissolved organic matter and its correlation with water quality in peri-urban and urban river watersheds. Ecol Indic, 2019, 104: 459-469.

[169] TaoH-C, LeiT, ShiG, SunX-N, WeiX-Y, ZhangL-J, WuW-M. Removal of heavy metals from fly ash leachate using combined bioelectrochemical systems and electrolysis. J Hazard Mater, 2014, 264: 1-7.

[170] TawfikA, El-GoharyF, TemminkH. Treatment of domestic wastewater in an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor followed by moving bed biofilm reactor. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 2010, 332267-276.

[171] ThapaKB, QiY, HoadleyAFA. Interaction of polyelectrolyte with digested sewage sludge and lignite in sludge dewatering. Colloids Surf a: Physicochem Eng Aspects, 2009, 334166-73.

[172] TokwaroR, SemiyagaS, NiwagabaCB, NakagiriA, SempewoJI, MuoghaluCC, MangaM. Application of black soldier fly larvae in decentralized treatment of faecal sludge from pit latrines in informal settlements in Kampala city. Front Environ Sci, 2023, 11: 138.

[173] UmerM, BrandoniC, JaffarM, HewittNJ, DunlopP, ZhangK, HuangY. An experimental investigation of hydrogen production through biomass electrolysis. Processes, 2024, 121112.

[174] ValentisG, LesavreJ. Wastewater treatment by attached-growth microorganisms on a geotextile support. Water Sci Technol, 1990, 221–243-51.

[175] VandenbosscheM, JimenezM, CasettaM, BellayerS, BeaurainA, BourbigotS, TraisnelM. Chitosan-grafted nonwoven geotextile for heavy metals sorption in sediments. React Function Poly, 2013, 73153-59.

[176] VanderholmDH, DayDL, MuehlingAJ, WangLK, HungY-T, ButlerE, WangM-HS, YehyaHManagement and treatment of livestock wastes. Waste treatment in the biotechnology, agricultural and food industries, 2022Cham SwitzerlandSpringer1-77.

[177] VelkushanovaK, BrdjanovicD, KoottatepT, StrandeL, BuckleyC, RonteltapMMethods for faecal sludge analysis, 2021London, UKIWA publishing.

[178] VerbylaME, IriarteMM, Mercado GuzmánA, CoronadoO, AlmanzaM, MihelcicJR. Pathogens and fecal indicators in waste stabilization pond systems with direct reuse for irrigation: Fate and transport in water, soil and crops. Sci Total Environ, 2016, 551–552: 429-437.

[179] VögeliY, LohriCR, GallardoA, DienerS, ZurbrüggCAnaerobic digestion of biowaste in developing countries: practical information and case studies, 2014Dübendorf, SwitzerlandSwiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)

[180] WandaC, KengneES, WafoGVD, NzouebetWAL, NbendahP, NgandjuiYAT, ZapfackL, NoumsiIMK. Quantification and characterisation of faecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems prior the design of a treatment plant in bangangte, west region of Cameroon. Environ Chall, 2021, 5: 100236.

[181] Wang Y, Yang Z, Zhu F, Ma Y, Ren J (2022) Study on the dewatering effect of in-situ dredged mud under the combined action of flocculant-absorbent. Paper presented at: Advances in Geoengineering along the Belt and Road. Springer Singapore; Singapore

[182] WardBJ, SeptienS, RonteltapM, StrandeLVelkushanovaK, SL, RonteltapM, KoottatepT, BuckleyC. Experimental design for the development, transfer, scaling-up, and optimisation of treatment technologies: case studies of dewatering and drying. Methods for faecal sludge analysis, 2021London, UKIWA Publishing85-114

[183] WardBJ, NguyenMT, SamSB, KorirN, NiwagabaCB, MorgenrothE, StrandeL. Particle size as a driver of dewatering performance and its relationship to stabilization in fecal sludge. J Environ Manage, 2023, 326Pt B116801.

[184] Watts M, Trainer E (2010) Disposal of coal mine slurry waste using geotextile containers at the north river mine, chevron mining inc. Tailings Mine Waste 265–283. https://doi.org/10.1201/B10569-33

[185] WeiH, GaoB, RenJ, LiA, YangH. Coagulation/flocculation in dewatering of sludge: a review. Water Res, 2018, 143: 608-631.

[186] WeiJ, HuangX, WangH, WangF, LiuX, YanY, QuY. Insight into biofilm formation of wastewater treatment processes: Nitrogen removal performance and biological mechanisms. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 903: 166550.

[187] WiewelBV, LamoreeM. Geotextile composition, application and ecotoxicology—a review. J Hazard Mater, 2016, 317: 640-655.

[188] WorleyJW, BassTM, VendrellPF. Use of geotextile tubes with chemical amendments to dewater dairy lagoon solids. Bioresour Technol, 2008, 99104451-4459.

[189] WuH, YaoC, LiC, MiaoM, ZhongY, LuY, LiuT. Review of application and innovation of geotextiles in geotechnical engineering. Materials, 2020, 1371774.

[190] WuH, ZhangM, ZhengH, YiF. Sedimentation behavior of flocculant-treated dredged slurry under filtration of woven geotextiles. Water, 2023, 15234158.

[191] YadavKD, TareV, AhammedMM. Integrated composting–vermicomposting process for stabilization of human faecal slurry. Ecol Eng, 2012, 47: 24-29.

[192] Yadav VS, Vinoth R, Yadav D (2018) Bio-hydrogen production from waste materials: A review. Paper presented at: MATEC Web of Conferences. EDP Sciences. August 2018, Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819202020

[193] YamanC, MartinJP, KorkutE. Use of layered geotextiles to provide a substrate for biomass development in treatment of septic tank effluent prior to ground infiltration. J Environ Eng, 2005, 131121667-1675.

[194] YangL, CuiS, RenY-X, GuoL-K, LiuH-H, ZhangZ-H, TuL-X, WangJ, LiX-T. Nitrogen removal and aggregation characteristics of pseudomonas aeruginosa yl and its application capacity for ammonium-rich wastewater treatment. J Water Process Eng, 2021, 43: 102260.

[195] YeeTW, LawsonCR. Modelling the geotextile tube dewatering process. Geosynth Int, 2012, 195339-353.

[196] YeeT, LawsonC, WangZ, DingL, LiuY. Geotextile tube dewatering of contaminated sediments, tianjin eco-city, China. Geotext Geomembr, 2012, 31: 39-50.

[197] YouZ, XuH, SunY, ZhangS, ZhangL. Effective treatment of emulsified oil wastewater by the coagulation-flotation process. RSC Adv, 2018, 87140639-40646.

[198] ZhangH, GaoY, ShiH, LeeCT, HashimH, ZhangZ, WuW-M, LiC. Recovery of nutrients from fish sludge in an aquaponic system using biological aerated filters with ceramsite plus lignocellulosic material media. J Clean Prod, 2020, 258: 120886.

[199] ZhuJ, ZhengH, JiangZ, ZhangZ, LiuL, SunY, TshukuduT. Synthesis and characterization of a dewatering reagent: Cationic polyacrylamide (p(am–dmc–dac)) for activated sludge dewatering treatment. Desal Water Treat, 2013, 5113–152791-2801.

[200] Ziebell F, Gold M, Matovu J, Maiteki J, Niwagaba C, Strande L (2016) Dewatering of faecal sludge with geotextiles: Results from laboratory and bench-scale experiments in kampala, uganda. Switzerland: Sandec/Eawag. https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/ewm/SEEK/pdfs/ziebell_dewatering_geotextiles.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2024

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Joint Center on Global Change and Earth System Science of the University of Maryland and Beijing Normal University