Synergizing sustainability: a critical review on harnessing agroforestry for biomass, carbon sequestration, and water-food-energy nexus

Abstract

To address the multifaceted challenge of sustainability posed by human interventions and climate change, the urgent need to harness agroforestry for biomass production, carbon sequestration, and the integration of the water-food-energy nexus has been recognized. This approach has not only provided innovative solutions but also highlighted the complexities and difficulties inherent in achieving sustainable development. This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive overview of research spanning 24 years, elucidating the role of agroforestry in mitigating climate change impacts, enhancing biomass provision, carbon sequestration, and optimizing the water-food-energy nexus. Various forms of agroforestry systems exhibit differing capacities to supply biomass and sequester carbon. In a study of a poplar-based agroforestry system, the dry biomass yield of poplar ranged from 69.90 to 207.98 Mg ha⁻¹ aboveground and 13.46 to 36.69 Mg ha⁻¹ belowground across five different planting geometries. The total carbon storage, encompassing both above and belowground biomass, varied among spacing configurations, with values of 112.48, 101.80, 84.87, 77.28, and 38.84 Mg C ha⁻¹, respectively. Further, agroforestry (sapota-cowpea-castor) decreased soil loss and runoff by 37.7 and 19.1%, respectively, compared to sole crop cultivation. Similarly in another study, the Karanda (Carissa sp.) based agroforestry system with a mung bean-potato system achieved the highest net return (3529.1 US$ ha⁻¹) and water use efficiency (33.0 kg ha-mm⁻¹). The review synthesizes findings from diverse studies highlighting the multifunctional benefits of agroforestry systems across various geographical regions and agroecological contexts. Key themes explored include biomass production, carbon sequestration potential, and the intricate linkages between water, food, and energy security within agroforestry landscapes. Through a synthesis of empirical evidence, the review underscores the capacity of agroforestry to enhance ecosystem resilience, mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and foster sustainable livelihoods for rural communities. Moreover, it examines the synergies and trade-offs inherent in agroforestry interventions, considering factors such as species selection, management practices, and socio-economic considerations. The review also identifies gaps in current knowledge and areas requiring further research attention, such as the scaling up of agroforestry practices, socio-economic impacts on local communities, and policy frameworks for mainstreaming agroforestry into national and international climate and development agendas. Overall, this review underscores the pivotal role of agroforestry as a holistic approach to achieving multiple SDGs, particularly in the face of climate change. By integrating biomass provision, carbon sequestration, and optimizing resource use through the water-food-energy nexus, agroforestry offers a sustainable pathway toward resilient and equitable development.

Keywords

Agroforestry / Biomass provision / Carbon sequestration / Water-Food-Energy nexus / Sustainable development goals / Land use management

References

[1] Abbas F, Hammad HM, Fahad S, Cerdà A, Rizwan M, Farhad W, Ehsan S, Bakhat HF. Agroforestry: a sustainable environmental practice for carbon sequestration under the climate change scenarios—a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int, 2017, 24 12 11177- 11191

[2] Achmad B, Sanudin, Siarudin M, Widiyanto A, Diniyati D, Sudomo A Traditional subsistence farming of smallholder agroforestry systems in Indonesia: a review. Sustainability, 2022, 14 14 8631

[3] Adhikari B, Lodhiyal N, Lodhiyal LS. Assessment of crop yield, productivity and carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems in Central Himalaya, India. Agrofor Syst, 2020, 94: 281- 296

[4] Afshar A, Soleimanian E, Akbari Variani H, Vahabzadeh M, Molajou A. The conceptual framework to determine interrelations and interactions for holistic Water, Energy, and Food Nexus. Environ, Dev Sustain, 2022, 24: 10119- 10140

[5] Ajit, Dhyani SK, Handa AK, Newaj R, Chavan SB, Alam B Estimating carbon sequestration potential of existing agroforestry systems in India. Agrofor Syst, 2017, 91: 1101- 1118

[6] Akamani K, Holzmueller EJ. Socioeconomic and policy considerations in the adoption of agroforestry systems: an ecosystem-based adaptive governance approach. Agrofor: Anecdotal Mod Sci, 2017

[7] Akbari Variani H, Afshar A, Vahabzadeh M, Molajou A. A review on food subsystem simulation models for the water-food-energy nexus: development perspective. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2023, 30 42 95197- 95214

[8] Alagele SM, Anderson SH, Udawatta RP, Veum KS, Rankoth LM. Long-term perennial management and cropping effects on soil microbial biomass for claypan soils. Agron J, 2020, 112: 815- 827

[9] Ali A, Xu MS, Zhao YT, Zhang QQ, Zhou LL, Yang XD, Yan ER. Allometric biomass equations for shrub and small tree species in subtropical China. Silva Fenn, 2015, 49: 1- 10

[10] Anokye R, Adu G. The status of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) development in Ghana. J Environ Sci Comput Sci Eng Technol, 2014, 3 1 144- 155

[11] Ansari J, Udawatta RP, Anderson SH. Soil nitrous oxide emission from agroforestry, rowcrop, grassland and forests in North America: a review. Agrofor Syst, 2023, 97 8 1465- 1479

[12] Aragón S, Salinas N, Nina-Quispe A, Qquellon VH, Paucar GR, Huaman W Aboveground biomass in secondary montane forests in Peru: Slow carbon recovery in agroforestry legacies. Glob Ecol Conserv, 2021, 28: e01696

[13] Atangana A, Khasa D, Chang S, Degrande A, Atangana A, Khasa D Carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems. Trop Agrofor, 2014

[14] Babu S, Das A, Singh R, Mohapatra KP, Kumar S, Rathore SS Designing an energy efficient, economically feasible, and environmentally robust integrated farming system model for sustainable food production in the Indian Himalayas. Sustain Food Technol, 2023, 1 1 126- 142

[15] Bado BV, Whitbread A, Manzo MLS. Improving agricultural productivity using agroforestry systems: performance of millet, cowpea, and ziziphus-based cropping systems in West Africa Sahel. Agr Ecosyst Environ, 2021, 305

[16] Bahar NH, Lo M, Sanjaya M, Van Vianen J, Alexander P, Ickowitz A, Sunderland T. Meeting the food security challenge for nine billion people in 2050: what impact on forests. Glob Environ Chang, 2020, 62

[17] Banerjee S, Baah-Acheamfour M, Carlyle CN, Bissett A, Richardson AE, Siddique T, Bork EW, Chang SX. Determinants of bacterial communities in Canadian agroforestry systems. Environ Microbiol, 2015, 18: 1805- 1816

[18] Barman A, Singh VK, Rathore SS, Babu S, Sharma VK. Deficit-irrigation management and agri-horti system compatibility using drip for enhancing water-use efficiency and profitability in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). Indian J Agron, 2021, 66 3 378- 381

[19] Barman A, Saha P, Patel S, Bera A. Crop diversification an effective strategy for sustainable agriculture development. IntechOpen, 2022

[20] Barman A, Singh VK, Rathore SS, Babu S, Upadhyay PK, Singh RK, Saha P. Assessment of interaction effect of deficit drip irrigation scheduling and agri-horti system on growth attributes, productivity and quality parameters of Indian mustard under semi-arid region. Indian Soc Agric Sci, 2022, 43 2 174- 178

[21] Bayala J, Prieto I. Water acquisition, sharing and redistribution by roots: applications to agroforestry systems. Plant Soil, 2020, 453: 17- 28

[22] Beule L, Lehtsaar E, Corre MD, Schmidt M, Veldkamp E, Karlovsky P. Poplar rows in temperate agroforestry croplands promote bacteria, fungi, and denitrification genes in soils. Front Microbiol, 2020, 10: 3108

[23] Beuschel R, Piepho HP, Joergensen RG, Wachendorf C. Similar spatial patterns of soil quality indicators in three poplar-based silvo-arable alley cropping systems in Germany. Biol Fertil Soils, 2019, 55: 1- 14

[24] Bijalwan A, Dobriyal MJR, Upadhyay AP, Singh S. Upadhyay AP, Kin-hal GA, Dharni AK, Duggaya D. Carbon sequestration potential in agroforestry systems: a study in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. Climate change combating through science and technology, 2016 India IIFM, Bhopal 157- 164

[25] Birhane E, Ahmed S, Hailemariam M Carbon stock and woody species diversity in homegarden agroforestry along an elevation gradient in southern Ethiopia. Agroforest Syst, 2020, 94: 1099- 1110

[26] Bishaw B, Soolanayakanahally R, Karki U, Hagan E. Agroforestry for sustainable production and resilient landscapes. Agrofor Syst, 2022, 96 3 447- 451

[27] Bommarco R, Vico G, Hallin S. Exploiting ecosystem services in agriculture for increased food security. Glob Food Sec, 2018, 17: 57- 63

[28] Boreux V, Kushalappa CG, Vaast P, Ghazoul J. Interactive effects among ecosystem services and management practices on crop production: pollination in coffee agroforestry systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 2013, 110 21 8387- 8392

[29] Buvaneswaran C, George M, Perez D, Kanninen M. Biomass of teak plantations in Tamil Nadu, India and Costa Rica compared. J Trop for Sci, 2006, 18 3 195- 197

[30] Campana PE, Lawford R (2022) Renewable energies in the context of the water–food–energy nexus. In: Jurasz J, Beluco A. (Eds.) Complementarity of Variable Renewable Energy Sources, Elsevier, p. 571–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85527-3.00010-8

[31] Caputo S, Schoen V, Specht K, Grard B, Blythe C, Cohen N Applying the food-energy-water nexus approach to urban agriculture: from FEW to FEWP (Food-Energy-Water-People). Urban for Urban Green, 2021, 58: 126934

[32] Cardinael R, Mao Z, Chenu C, Hinsinger P. Belowground functioning of agroforestry systems: recent advances and perspectives. Plant Soil, 2020, 453: 1- 13

[33] Cartus Oliver, Santoro Maurizio, Kellndorfer Josef. Mapping forest aboveground biomass in the Northeastern United States with ALOS PALSAR dual-polarization L-band. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2012, 124: 466- 478

[34] Carvalho FE, Escobar-Pachajoa LD, Camargo ID, Rojas-Molina J, Jaimes-Suárez YY, Rivera-Meneses JJ. The interspecific interactions in agroforestry systems enhance leaf water use efficiency and carbon storage in cocoa. Environ Exp Bot, 2023, 205

[35] Castle SE, Miller DC, Ordonez PJ, Baylis K, Hughes K. The impacts of agroforestry interventions on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Campbell Syst Rev, 2021, 17 2

[36] Chauhan SK, Singh A, Sikka SS, Tiwana US, Sharma R, Saralch HS. Yield and quality assessment of annual and perennial fodder intercrops in Leucaena alley farming system. Range Manage Agrofor, 2014, 35 2 230- 235

[37] Chavan S, Newaj R, Keerthika A, Ram A, Jha A, Kumar A. Agroforestry for adaptation and mitigation of climate change. Popular Kheti, 2014, 2: 214- 219

[38] Chavan SB, Keerthika A, Dhyani SK, Handa AK, Newaj R, Rajarajan K. National agroforestry Policy in India: a low hanging fruit. Curr Sci, 2015, 108 10 1826- 1834

[39] Chavan SB, Dhillon RS, Ajit, Rizvi RH, Sirohi C, Handa AK Estimating biomass production and carbon sequestration of poplar-based agroforestry systems in India. Environ, Dev Sustain, 2022

[40] Chavan SB, Dhillon RS, Sirohi C, Keerthika A, Kumari S, Bharadwaj KK Enhancing farm income through boundary plantation of poplar (populus deltoides): an economic analysis. Sustainability, 2022, 14 14 8663

[41] Chavan SB, Dhillon RS, Sirohi C, Uthappa AR, Jinger D, Jatav HS Carbon sequestration potential of commercial agroforestry systems in indo-gangetic plains of india: poplar and eucalyptus-based agroforestry systems. Forests, 2023, 14 3 559

[42] Chavan SB, Dhillon RS, Sirohi C, Uthappa AR, Jinger D, Jatav HS Carbon sequestration potential of commercial agroforestry systems in Indo-Gangetic Plains of India: poplar and eucalyptus-based agroforestry systems. Forests, 2023, 14 3 559

[43] Chave J, Andalo C, Brown S, Cairns MA, Chambers JQ, Eamus D, Fölster H, Fromard F, Higuchi N, Kira T, Lescure J-P, Nelson BW, Ogawa H, Puig H, Riéra B, Yamakura T. Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia, 2005, 145: 87- 99

[44] Chave J, Réjou-Méchain M, Búrquez A, Chidumayo E, Colgan MS, Delitti WB, Duque A, Eid T, Fearnside PM, Goodman RC, Henry M, Martinez-Yrizar A, Mugasha WA, Muller-Landau HC, Mencuccini M, Nelson BW, Ngomanda A, Nogueira EM, Ortiz-Malavassi E, Pelissier R, Ploton P, Ryan CM, Saldarriaga JG, Vieilledent G. Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Glob Chang Biol, 2014, 20: 3177- 3190

[45] Chave J, Réjou-Méchain M, Búrquez A, Chidumayo E, Colgan MS, Delitti WB Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Glob Change Biol, 2014, 20 10 3177- 3190

[46] Chisanga K, Bhardwaj DR, Pala NA, Thakur CL. Biomass production and carbon stock inventory of high-altitude dry temperate land use systems in North Western Himalayas. Ecol Process, 2018, 7 22 1- 13

[47] Clermont-Dauphin C, Blanchart E, Loranger-Merciris G, Meynard JM. Cropping systems to improve soil biodiversity and ecosystem services: the outlook and lines of research. Sustain Agric Rev 14: Agroecol Glob Change, 2014

[48] Campana, P. E., & Lawford, R. (2022). Chapter 24 -Renewable energies in the context of the water–food–energy nexus. In Jurasz, J. & Beluco, A. (Eds.) Complementarity of Variable Renewable Energy Sources, Elsevier, p. 571–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85527-3.00010-8

[49] Cyamweshi AR, Kuyah S, Mukuralinda A, Muthuri CW. Potential of Alnus acuminata-based agroforestry for carbon sequestration and other ecosystem services in Rwanda. Agrofor Syst, 2021, 95 6 1125- 1135

[50] Das AK, Rahman MA, Keya SS, Saha SR, Rahman MM. Malta-based agroforestry system: an emerging option for improving productivity, profitability and land use efficiency. Environ Sustain, 2020, 3 4 521- 532

[51] Das P, Dhara PK, Panda S. Fruit based agroforestry systems-potential means for sustaining carbon sequestration, improving soil health and diet of community in red and lateritic zone of West Bengal. India Int J Sci Eng Res, 2022, 13 12 832- 843

[52] De Laurentiis V, Hunt DV, Rogers CD. Overcoming food security challenges within an energy/water/food nexus (EWFN) approach. Sustainability, 2016, 8 1 95

[53] Dev I, Ram A, Ahlawat SP, Palsaniya DR, Singh R, Dhyani SK Bamboo-based agroforestry system (Dendrocalamus strictus+ sesame–chickpea) for enhancing productivity in semi-arid tropics of central India. Agrofor Syst, 2020, 94: 1725- 1739

[54] Dhakal A, Maraseni TN, Timsina J (2022) Assessing the potential of agroforestry in nepal: Socio-economic and environmental perspectives. In: Timsina J, Maraseni TN, Gauchan D, Adhikari, J., Ojha, H. (eds) Agriculture, Natural Resources and Food Security. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. pp 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09555-9_21

[55] Dhonde M, Sahu K, Murty VVS. The application of solar-driven technologies for the sustainable development of agriculture farming: a comprehensive review. Rev Environ Sci Bio/technol, 2022, 21 1 139- 167

[56] Dhyani SK, Newaj R, Sharma AR. Agroforestry: its relation with agronomy, challenges and opportunities. Indian J Agron, 2009, 54 3 249- 266

[57] Dhyani SK, Ram A, Dev I. Potential of agroforestry systems in carbon sequestration in India. Dhyani, SK, Ram, A Dev, 2016, I: 1103- 1112

[58] Dhyani SK, Ram A, Newaj R, Handa AK, Dev I. Agroforestry for carbon sequestration in tropical India. Carbon Manage Trop Sub-Trop Terr Syst, 2020

[59] Dhyani S, Murthy IK, Kadaverugu R, Dasgupta R, Kumar M, Adesh Gadpayle K. Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared?. Forests, 2021, 12 3 303

[60] Eddy WC, Yang WH. Improvements in soil health and soil carbon sequestration by an agroforestry for food production system. Agr Ecosyst Environ, 2022, 333

[61] Elagib NA, Al-Saidi M. Balancing the benefits from the water–energy–land–food nexus through agroforestry in the Sahel. Sci Total Environ, 2020, 742

[62] El-Gafy I. Water–food–energy nexus index: analysis of water–energy–food nexus of crop’s production system applying the indicators approach. Appl Water Sci, 2017, 7 6 2857- 2868

[63] Ellison D, Futter MN, Bishop K. On the forest cover–water yield debate: from demand-to supply-side thinking. Glob Change Biol, 2012, 18 3 806- 820

[64] El-Said M. Land restoration urgent as degradation hits poorest–UN, 2022 Oxford SciDev. net-Environment

[65] Endo A, Tsurita I, Burnett K, Orencio PM. A review of the current state of research on the water, energy, and food nexus. J Hydrol: Reg Stud, 2017, 11: 20- 30

[66] Fabiani S, Vanino S, Napoli R, Nino P. Water energy food nexus approach for sustainability assessment at farm level: an experience from an intensive agricultural area in central Italy. Environ Sci Policy, 2020, 104: 1- 12

[67] Fan J, Lu X, Gu S, Guo X. Improving nutrient and water use efficiencies using water-drip irrigation and fertilization technology in Northeast China. Agric Water Manag, 2020, 241

[68] FAO (2013) Advancing agroforestry on the policy agenda: A guide for decision-makers, by G. Buttoud, in collaboration with O. Ajayi, G. Detlefsen, F. Place & E. Torquebiau. Agroforestry working paper no. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO, Rome. 37 pp

[69] Fatima A, Singh VK, Babu S, Singh RK, Upadhyay PK, Rathore SS Food production potential and environmental sustainability of different integrated farming system models in northwest India. Front Sustain Food Syst, 2023, 7: 959464

[70] Foong SY, Chan YH, Loy ACM, How BS, Tamothran AM, Yip AJK The nexus between biofuels and pesticides in agroforestry: pathways toward United Nations sustainable development goals. Environ Res, 2022, 214: 113751

[71] Foresta HD. Advancing agroforestry on the policy agenda–a guide for decision-makers. Forests, Trees Livelihoods, 2013

[72] Foundjem-Tita D, Degrande A, Kamdem CB. National and international policies and policy instruments in the development of agroforestry in Chad. Sustainability, 2021, 13 16 9200

[73] Garrity D. Science-based agroforestry and the achievement of the millennium development goals. World Agrofor Future, 2006, 92: 461- 471

[74] Gebremeskel D, Birhane E, Rannestad MM, Gebre S, Tesfay G. Biomass and soil carbon stocks of Rhamnus prinoides based agroforestry practice with varied density in the drylands of Northern Ethiopia. Agrofor Syst, 2021, 95 7 1275- 1293

[75] Ghale B, Mitra E, Sodhi HS, Verma AK, Kumar S. Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems and its potential in climate change mitigation. Water Air Soil Pollut, 2022, 233 7 228

[76] Ghaley BB, Porter JR. Emergy synthesis of a combined food and energy production system compared to a conventional wheat (Triticum aestivum) production system. Ecol Ind, 2013, 24: 534- 542

[77] Goswami S, Verma KS, Kaushal R. Biomass and carbon sequestration in different agroforestry systems of a Western Himalayan watershed. Biol Agric Hortic, 2014, 30 2 88- 96

[78] Gupta B, Sarvade S, Singh M. Gupta, Panwar P, Kaushal R. Species composition, biomass production, and carbon storage potential of agroforestry systems in Himachal Pradesh. Agroforestry for increased production and livelihood security, 2017 New Delhi New India Publishing Agency 242- 270

[79] Gupta SR, Dagar JC, Teketay D (2020) Agroforestry for Rehabilitation of Degraded Landscapes: Achieving Livelihood and Environmental Security. In: Dagar JC, Gupta SR, Teketay D (eds) Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes. Springer, 23–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_2

[80] Gupta DK, Bhatt RK, Mohamed MN, Shukla AK, Jangid BL. Carbon sequestration potential of Hardwickia binata Roxb. Based agroforestry in hot semi-arid environment of India. Curr Sci, 2019, 116 1 112- 116

[81] Hachaichi M, Egieya J (2023) Water-Food-Energy Nexus in Global Cities: Addressing Complex Urban Interdependencies. Water Resour Manage 37:1811–1825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03455-7

[82] Hairiah K, van Noordwijk M, Sari RR, Saputra DD, Widianto, Suprayogo D, Kurniawan S, Prayogo C, Gusli S. Soil carbon stocks in Indonesian (agro) forest transitions: compaction conceals lower carbon concentrations in standard accounting. Agric, Ecosyst Environ, 2020, 294: 106879

[83] Hoff H. Understanding the Nexus: background paper for the bonn 2011 conference: the water energy and food security nexus, 2011 Stockholm Stockholm Environment Institute

[84] Hombegowda HC, Adhikary PP, Jakhar P, Madhu M (2022). Alley Cropping Agroforestry System for Improvement of Soil Health. In: Shit, P.K., Adhikary, P.P., Bhunia, G.S., Sengupta, D. (eds) Soil Health and Environmental Sustainability. Environmental Science and Engineering. Springer, Cham. pp 529–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09270-1_23

[85] Howells M, Hermann S, Welsch M, Bazilian M, Segerström R, Alfstad T, Gielen D, Rogner H, Fischer G, van Velthuizen H, Wiberg D, Young C, Roehrl A, Mueller A, Steduto, Ramma I. Integrated analysis of climate change, land-use, energy and water strategies. Nat Clim Chang, 2013, 3 7 621- 626

[86] Ingram JSI, Fernandes ECM. Managing carbon sequestration in soils: concepts and terminology. Agr Ecosyst Environ, 2001, 87 1 111- 117

[87] IPCC Hegerl GC, Zwiers F, Braconnot P, Gillett NP, Luo Y, Marengo Orsini JA, Nicholls N, Penner JE, Stott PA. Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL. Understanding and attributing climate change. Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group i to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, 2007 Cambridge Cambridge University Press

[88] IPCC (2019) IPCC special report on climate change, desertifcation, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems; intergovernmental panel on climate change: Geneva, Switzerland

[89] Jahan H, Rahman MW, Islam MS, Rezwan-Al-Ramim A, Tuhin MMUJ, Hossain ME. Adoption of agroforestry practices in Bangladesh as a climate change mitigation option: investment, drivers, and SWOT analysis perspectives. Environ Chall, 2022, 7

[90] Jara-Rojas R, Russy S, Roco L, Fleming-Muñoz D, Engler A. Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices: insights from silvopastoral systems of Colombia. Forests, 2020, 11 6 648

[91] Jat HS, Choudhary KM, Nandal DP, Yadav AK, Poonia T, Singh Y Conservation agriculture-based sustainable intensification of cereal systems leads to energy conservation, higher productivity and farm profitability. Environ Manage, 2020, 65: 774- 786

[92] Jha KK. Carbon storage and sequestration rate assessment and allometric model development in young teak plantations of tropical moist deciduous forest, India. J for Res, 2015, 26: 589- 604

[93] Jinger D, Kumar R, Kakade V, Dinesh D, Singh G, Pande VC Agroforestry for controlling soil erosion and enhancing system productivity in ravine lands of Western India under climate change scenario. Environ Monit Assess, 2022, 194 4 267

[94] Jinger D, Kaushal R, Kumar R, Paramesh V, Verma A, Shukla M Degraded land rehabilitation through agroforestry in India: Achievements, current understanding, and future prospectives. Front Ecol Evol, 2023, 11: 1088796

[95] John AR, Raj AK, Kunhamu TK, Anoop EV, Jamaludheen V. Forage yield and carbon dynamics of mulberry fodder banks under varying density and harvest interval in coconut garden. Indian J Agrofor, 2019, 21 1 42- 49

[96] Jose S. Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview. Agrofor Syst, 2009, 76: 1- 10

[97] Jose S, Udawatta RP. Agroforestry for ecosystem services: an introduction. Agrofor Ecosyst Serv, 2021

[98] Joy J, Raj AK, Kunhamu TK, Jamaludheen V, Jayasree K. Fodder production and carbon stock of calliandra under coconut plantation. Range Manage Agrofor, 2019, 40 1 109- 117

[99] Kang K, Klinghoffer NB, ElGhamrawy I, Berruti F. Thermochemical conversion of agroforestry biomass and solid waste using decentralized and mobile systems for renewable energy and products. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2021, 149

[100] Kang K, Klinghoffer NB, ElGhamrawy I, Berruti F. Thermochemical conversion of agroforestry biomass and solid waste using decentralized and mobile systems for renewable energy and products. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2021, 149

[101] Kanzler M, Böhm C, Domin T, Freese D. Energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions in an agroforestry system-a case study from Eastern Germany. Agroecol Sustain Food Syst, 2021, 45 6 868- 891

[102] Karamian F, Mirakzadeh AA, Azari A. The water-energy-food nexus in farming: managerial insights for a more efficient consumption of agricultural inputs. Sustain Prod Consum, 2021, 27: 1357- 1371

[103] Karizumi N. The mechanism and function of tree root in the process of forest production. I. Method of investigation and estimation of the root biomass. Bull Gov for Exp Stn, 1974, 259: 1- 99

[104] Karki H, Bargali K, Bargali SS. Dynamics of fine roots and soil nitrogen in Mangifera indica-based agroforestry systems in the Central Himalayan region. India Land Degrad Dev, 2022, 33 17 3523- 3538

[105] Kassa G, Bekele T, Demissew S, Abebe T. Above- and belowground biomass and biomass carbon stocks in homegarden agroforestry systems of different age groups at three sites of southern and southwestern Ethiopia. Carbon Manage, 2022, 13 1 531- 549

[106] Kaur B, Gupta SR, Singh G. Carbon storage and nitrogen cycling in silvopastoral systems on a sodic in northwestern India. Agrofor Syst, 2002, 54: 21- 29

[107] Kaushik N, Tikkoo A, Yadav PK, Deswal RPS, Singh S. Agri–Silvi–Horti systems for semiarid regions of North-West India. Agric Res, 2017, 6: 150- 158

[108] Kenzo T, Ichie T, Hattori D, Kendawang JJ, Sakurai K, Ninomiya I. Changes in above-and belowground biomass in early successional tropical secondary forests after shifting cultivation in Sarawak. Malaysia for Ecol Manage, 2010, 260 5 875- 882

[109] Khan N, Jhariya MK, Raj A, Banerjee A, Meena RS, Bargali SS Agroforestry and its services for soil management and sustainability. Sustain Intensif Agroecosyst Serv Manage, 2021

[110] Kirby KR, Potvin C. Variation in carbon storage among tree species: implications for the management of a small-scale carbon sink project. For Ecol Manage, 2007, 246 2–3 208- 221

[111] Kittur BH, Upadhyay AP, Jhariya MK, Raj A, Banerjee A (2024). Agroforestry for resource diversification and sustainable development. In: Jhariya MK, Meena RS, Banerjee A, Kumar S, Raj A (Eds.) Agroforestry for Carbon and Ecosystem Management, Academic Press, pp 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95393-1.00028-2.

[112] Komal N, Zaman Q, Yasin G, Nazir S, Ashraf K, Waqas M, Ahmad M, Batool A, Talib I, Chen Y. Carbon storage potential of agroforestry systems near brick kilns in irrigated agro-ecosystem. Agriculture, 2022, 12: 1- 13

[113] Kraft P, Rezaei EE, Breuer L, Ewert F, Große-Stoltenberg A, Kleinebecker T Modelling agroforestry’s contributions to people—a review of available models. Agronomy, 2021, 11 11 2106

[114] Krause T (2019) Agroforestry needs to take another look at biodiversity, and not just the plants. Swedish international agricultural network initiative. https://www.siani.se/news-story/agroforestry-needs-to-take-another-look-at-biodiversity-and-not-just-the-plants/. Accessed 10 Dec 2023

[115] Kumar BM, Kunhamu TK. Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems in India: a synthesis. Agrofor Ecosyst Serv, 2021

[116] Kumar M, Anemsh K, Sheikh MA, Raj AJ. Structure and carbon stock potential in traditional agro forestry system of Garhwal Himalaya. J Agri Technol, 2012, 8 7 2187- 2200

[117] Kumar M, Kumar R, Konsam B, Sheikh MA, Pandey R. Above-and below-ground biomass production in Pinus roxburghii forests along altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Curr Sci, 2019, 116 9 1506- 1514

[118] Kumar P, Mishra AK, Kumar M, Chaudhari SK, Singh R, Singh K Biomass production and carbon sequestration of Eucalyptus tereticornis plantation in reclaimed sodic soils of north-west India. ICAR, 2019, 89 7 1091- 1095

[119] Kumar A, Rana KS, Choudhary AK, Bana RS, Sharma VK, Prasad S Energy budgeting and carbon footprints of zero-tilled pigeonpea–wheat cropping system under sole or dual crop basis residue mulching and Zn-fertilization in a semi-arid agro-ecology. Energy, 2021, 231: 120862

[120] Kumar S, Bijalwan A, Singh B, Rawat D, Yewale AG, Riyal MK, Thakur TK. Comparison of carbon sequestration potential of Quercus leucotrichophora–based agroforestry systems and natural forest in central Himalaya, India. Water Air Soil Pollut, 2021, 232 9 350

[121] Kumar R, Kumar R, Karmakar S, Kumar A, Singh AK, Kumar A, Singh J. Impact of amide fertilizer on carbon sequestration under the agroforestry system in the eastern plateau region of India. Sustainability, 2023, 15 12 9775

[122] Kumar S, Singh R, Shukla AK (2015) Sustaining productivity in aonla based horti-pasture system through in-situ soil moisture conservation in semi-arid region of India. In: Proceedings of the XXIII international grassland congress, November 24, New Delhi, India

[123] Kumara K, Pal S, Chand P, Kandpal A. Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems in Indian agricultural landscape: a Meta-Analysis. Ecosyst Serv, 2023, 62

[124] Kunhamu TK, Aneesh S, Mohan Kumar B, Jamaludheen V, Raj AK, Niyas P. Biomass production, carbon sequestration and nutrient characteristics of 22-year-old support trees in black pepper (Piper nigrum. L) production systems in Kerala. India Agrofor Syst, 2018, 92: 1171- 1183

[125] Lal R, Smith P, Jungkunst HF, Mitsch WJ, Lehmann J, Nair PR The carbon sequestration potential of terrestrial ecosystems. J Soil Water Conserv, 2018, 73 6 145A- 152A

[126] Lehmann LM, Smith J, Westaway S, Pisanelli A, Russo G, Borek R Productivity and economic evaluation of agroforestry systems for sustainable production of food and non-food products. Sustainability, 2020, 12 13 5429

[127] Li W, Chen E, Li Z, Ke Y, Zhan W. Forest aboveground biomass estimation using polarization coherence tomography and PolSAR segmentation. Int J Remote Sens, 2015, 36 2 530- 550

[128] Li M, Li H, Fu Q, Liu D, Yu L, Li T. Approach for optimizing the water-land-food-energy nexus in agroforestry systems under climate change. Agric Syst, 2021, 192

[129] Li M, Li H, Fu Q, Liu D, Yu L, Li T. Approach for optimizing the water-land-food-energy nexus in agroforestry systems under climate change. Agric Syst, 2021, 192

[130] Li M, Singh VP, Fu Q, Liu D, Li T, Zhou Y. Optimization of agricultural water–food–energy nexus in a random environment: an integrated modelling approach. Stoch Env Res Risk Assess, 2021, 35: 3- 19

[131] Li H, Li M, Fu Q, Singh VP, Liu D, Xu Y. An optimization approach of water-food-energy nexus in agro-forestry-livestock system under uncertain water supply. J Clean Prod, 2023, 407

[132] Liu S, Costanza R, Farber S, Troy A. Valuing ecosystem services: theory, practice, and the need for a transdisciplinary synthesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2010, 1185 1 54- 78

[133] Liu Z, Jia G, Yu X. Water uptake and WUE of Apple tree-Corn Agroforestry in the Loess hilly region of China. Agric Water Manag, 2020, 234

[134] Lu D, Batistella M, Moran E. Satellite estimation of aboveground biomass and impacts of forest stand structure. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens, 2005, 71 8 967- 974

[135] Li Y, Li M, Li C, Liu Z (2020) Forest aboveground biomass estimation using Landsat 8 and Sentinel-1A data with machine learning algorithms. Sci Rep 10:9952. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67024-3

[136] Ma Z, Chen HY, Bork EW, Carlyle CN, Chang SX. Carbon accumulation in agroforestry systems is affected by tree species diversity, age and regional climate: a global meta-analysis. Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 2020, 29 10 1817- 1828

[137] Maitra S, Bhattacharya U, Pramanick B, Sagar L, Gaikwad DJ, Pattanayak S Agroforestry: a resource conserving technology for efficient utilization of agricultural inputs, leads to food and environmental security. Agrofor Combat Global Chall Curr Prospects Future Chall, 2024

[138] Mangalassery S, Dayal D, Meena SL, Ram B. Carbon sequestration in agroforestry and pasture systems in arid northwestern India. Curr Sci, 2014, 107 8 1290- 1293

[139] Måren IE, Sharma LN. Seeing the wood for the trees: Carbon storage and conservation in temperate forests of the Himalayas. For Ecol Manage, 2021, 487

[140] Marsden C, Martin-Chave A, Cortet J, Hedde M, Capowiez Y. How agroforestry systems influence soil fauna and their functions-a review. Plant Soil, 2020, 453: 29- 44

[141] Maxwell AE, Warner TA, Fang F. Implementation of machine-learning classification in remote sensing: an applied review. Int J Remote Sens, 2018, 39: 2784- 2817

[142] Mayer S, Wiesmeier M, Sakamoto E, Hübner R, Cardinael R, Kühnel A, Kögel-Knabner I. Soil organic carbon sequestration in temperate agroforestry systems–a meta-analysis. Agr Ecosyst Environ, 2022, 323

[143] Mbow C, Smith P, Skole D, Duguma L, Bustamante M. Achieving mitigation and adaptation to climate change through sustainable agroforestry practices in Africa. Curr Opin Environ Sustain, 2014, 6: 8- 14

[144] McNicol IM, Berry NJ, Bruun TB, Hergoualc’h K, Mertz O, de Neergaard A, Ryan CM. Development of allometric models for above and belowground biomass in swidden cultivation fallows of Northern Laos. For Ecol Manage, 2015, 357: 104- 116

[145] Melo FP, Parry L, Brancalion PH, Pinto SR, Freitas J, Manhães AP Adding forests to the water–energy–food nexus. Nat Sustain, 2021, 4 2 85- 92

[146] Mina U, Geetha G, Sharma R, Singh D. Comparative assessment of tree carbon sequestration potential and soil carbon dynamics of major plantation crops and homestead agroforestry of Kerala, India. Anthropocene Sci, 2023

[147] Mirzaei A, Abdeshahi A, Azarm H, Naghavi S. New design of water-energy-food-environment nexus for sustainable agricultural management. Stoch Env Res Risk Assess, 2022, 36 7 1861- 1874

[148] Mishra RK. Fresh water availability and its global challenge. British J Multidiscip Adv Stud, 2023, 4 3 1- 78

[149] Mokany K, Raison RJ, Prokushkin AS. Critical analysis of root: shoot ratios in terrestrial biomes. Glob Change Biol, 2006, 12 1 84- 96

[150] Monalisa P, Panda NK, Sahoo RK, Mishra PJ. Role of agroforestry in biomass production and soil moisture conservation in fruit based agrisilvihorticultural systems with legume intercrops in Odisha. J Pharmacogn Phytochem, 2020, 9 4 1307- 1310

[151] Montagnini F, Metzel R (2017) The Contribution of Agroforestry to Sustainable Development Goal 2: End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and Improved Nutrition, and Promote Sustainable Agriculture. In: Montagnini, F. (eds) Integrating Landscapes: Agroforestry for Biodiversity Conservation and Food Sovereignty. Advances in Agroforestry, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69371-2_2

[152] Mukhlis I, Rizaludin MS, Hidayah I. Understanding socio-economic and environmental impacts of agroforestry on rural communities. Forests, 2022, 13 4 556

[153] Mukuralinda A, Kuyah S, Ruzibiza M, Ndoli A, Nabahungu NL, Muthuri C. Allometric equations, wood density and partitioning of aboveground biomass in the arboretum of Ruhande, Rwanda. Trees, Forests and People, 2021, 3

[154] Muschler RG (2016) Agroforestry: Essential for Sustainable and Climate-Smart Land Use?. In: Pancel, L., Köhl, M. (eds) Tropical Forestry Handbook. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 2013–2116. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3_300

[155] Muthee K, Duguma L, Majale C, Mucheru-Muna M, Wainaina P, Minang P. A quantitative appraisal of selected agroforestry studies in the Sub-Saharan Africa. Heliyon, 2022, 8 9 E10670

[156] Muthuri CW, Kuyah S, Njenga M, Kuria A, Öborn I, van Noordwijk M. Agroforestry's contribution to livelihoods and carbon sequestration in East Africa: A systematic review. Trees, for People, 2023, 14: 100432

[157] Nair PKR. Intensive multiple cropping with coconuts in India: principles, programmes and prospects, 1979 Berlin and Hamburg Verlag Paul Parey

[158] Nair PKR. Carbon sequestration studies in agroforestry systems: a reality-check. Agrofor Syst, 2012, 86: 243- 253

[159] Ramachandran Nair P.K., Nair Vimala D., Mohan Kumar B., Showalter Julia M.. Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry Systems, 2010 Elsevier 237- 307

[160] Nair PR, Nair VD, Kumar BM, Haile SG. Soil carbon sequestration in tropical agroforestry systems: a feasibility appraisal. Environ Sci Policy, 2009, 12 8 1099- 1111

[161] Nair PKR, Kumar BM, Nair VD (2021). Agroforestry for Biodiversity Conservation. In: An Introduction to Agroforestry. Springer, Cham, pp 539–562. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75358-0_21

[162] Nair PKR, Kumar BM, Nair VD (2021) Global Distribution of Agroforestry Systems. In: An Introduction to Agroforestry. Springer, Cham, pp 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75358-0_4

[163] Nair PKR (2011) Methodological Challenges in Estimating Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems. In: Kumar B, Nair P (eds) Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems. Advances in Agroforestry, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1630-8_1

[164] Nandan R, Poonia SP, Singh SS, Nath CP, Kumar V, Malik RK Potential of conservation agriculture modules for energy conservation and sustainability of rice-based production systems of Indo-Gangetic Plain region. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2021, 28 1 246- 261

[165] Nath PC, Thangjam U, Kalita SS, Sahoo UK, Giri K, Nath AJ. Tree diversity and carbon important species vary with traditional agroforestry managers in the Indian Eastern Himalayan region. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2022, 29 43 64732- 64744

[166] Ndlovu NP, Borrass L. Promises and potentials do not grow trees and crops. A review of institutional and policy research in agroforestry for the Southern African region. Land Use Policy, 2021, 103: 105298

[167] Network A. Achieving the global goals through agroforestry, 2018 Stockholm Agroforestry Network and Vi-Skogen

[168] Niether W, Jacobi J, Blaser WJ, Andres C, Armengot L. Cocoa agroforestry systems versus monocultures: a multi-dimensional meta-analysis. Environ Res Lett, 2020, 15 10

[169] Niiyama K, Kajimoto T, Matsuura Y, Yamashita T, Matsuo N, Yashiro Y Estimation of root biomass based on excavation of individual root systems in a primary dipterocarp forest in Pasoh Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. J Trop Ecol, 2010, 26 3 271- 284

[170] Nisar S, Benbi DK, Toor AS. Energy budgeting and carbon footprints of three tillage systems in maize-wheat sequence of north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains. Energy, 2021, 229

[171] Noordwijk MV (2020) Agroforestry as nexus of sustainable development goals. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science, IOP Publishing, vol 449(1), p 012001

[172] Norton GW, Alwang J, Masters WA. Economics of agricultural development: world food systems and resource use, 2021 London Routledge

[173] Noumi VN, Djongmo VA, Nyeck B, Mbobda RBT, Zapfack L. Vegetation structure, carbon sequestration potential and species conservation in four agroforestry systems in Cameroon (Tropical Africa). Acta Botanica Brasilica, 2018, 32: 212- 221

[174] Nyambati R, Kioko S (2018) Production and utilization of fruit, fodder and bio-energy trees. In: Kenya’s water towers protection and climate change mitigation and adaptation (water) programme, pp. 1-42. https://kefri.org/WaterTowers/PDF/Report%20_%20production%20and%20utilization%20of%20fodder%20and%20bioenergy%20trees%205%20feb%20201%20FF.pdf

[175] Octavia D, Suharti S, Murniati, Dharmawan IWS, Nugroho HYSH, Supriyanto B Mainstreaming smart agroforestry for social forestry implementation to support sustainable development goals in Indonesia: a review. Sustainability, 2022, 14 15 9313

[176] Onoja AO, Agbomedarho J, Etela I, Ajie EN. Profitability of cassava-based farms adopting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices in delta state, Nigeria. Clim Change-Resil Agric Agrofor: Ecosyst Serv Sustain, 2019

[177] Oumer AN, Hasan MM, Baheta AT, Mamat R, Abdullah AA. Bio-based liquid fuels as a source of renewable energy: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 88: 82- 98

[178] Ovalle-Rivera O, Van Oijen M, Läderach P, Roupsard O, de Melo Virginio Filho E, Barrios M, Rapidel B. Assessing the accuracy and robustness of a process-based model for coffee agroforestry systems in Central America. Agrofor Syst, 2020, 94: 2033- 2051

[179] Pancholi R, Yadav R, Gupta H, Vasure N, Choudhary S, Singh MN, Rastogi M. The role of agroforestry systems in enhancing climate resilience and sustainability-a review. Int J Environ Clim Change, 2023, 13 11 4342- 4353

[180] Panwar P, Mahalingappa DG, Kaushal R, Bhardwaj DR, Chakravarty S, Shukla G Biomass production and carbon sequestration potential of different agroforestry systems in India: a critical review. Forests, 2022, 13 8 1274

[181] Parrotta JA. Productivity, nutrient cycling, and succession in single-and mixed-species plantations of Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus robusta, and Leucaena leucocephala in Puerto Rico. For Ecol Manage, 1999, 124 1 45- 77

[182] Paul KI, Roxburgh SH, Chave J, England JR, Zerihun A, Specht A, Lewis T, Bennett LT, Baker TG, Adams MA, Huxtable D, Montagu KD, Falster DS, Feller M, Sochacki S, Ritson P, Bastin G, Bartle J, Inildy D, Hobbs T, Armour JL, Waterworth R, Stewart HTL, Jonsonf J, Forrester DI, Applegate G, Mendhan D, Bradford M, O'Grady A, Green D, Sudmeyer R, Rance SJ, Turner J, Barton C, Wenk EH, Grove T, Attiwill PM, Pinkard E, Butler D, Brooksbank K, Spencer B, Snowdon P, O'Brien N, Battaglia M, Cameron DM, Hamilton S, Mcauthur G, Sinclair A. Testing the generality of above-ground biomass allometry across plant functional types at the continent scale. Glob Chang Biol, 2015, 22: 2106- 2124

[183] Paul C, Weber M, Knoke T. Agroforestry versus farm mosaic systems–Comparing land-use efficiency, economic returns and risks under climate change effects. Sci Total Environ, 2017, 587: 22- 35

[184] Pérez-Neira D, Schneider M, Esche L, Armengot L. Sustainability of food security in different cacao production systems: a land, labour, energy and food quality nexus approach. Resour Conserv Recycl, 2023, 190

[185] Perfecto I, Vandermeer J. The agroecological matrix as alternative to the land-sparing/agriculture intensification model. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 2010, 107 13 5786- 5791

[186] Pham TD, Yokoya N, Xia J Comparison of machine learning methods for estimating mangrove above-ground biomass using multiple source remote sensing data in the Red River Delta biosphere reserve. Vietnam Remote Sens, 2020, 12: 1334

[187] Plieninger T, Muñoz-Rojas J, Buck LE, Scherr SJ. Agroforestry for sustainable landscape management. Sustain Sci, 2020, 15 5 1255- 1266

[188] Porter J, Costanza R, Sandhu H, Sigsgaard L, Wratten S. The value of producing food, energy, and ecosystem services within an agro-ecosystem. AMBIO: A J Human Environ, 2009, 38 4 186- 193

[189] Quandt A, Neufeldt H, Gorman K. Climate change adaptation through agroforestry: opportunities and gaps. Curr Opin Environ Sustain, 2023, 60

[190] Rahman S, Ali A, Raihan A. Soil carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems as a mitigation strategy of climate change: a case study from Dinajpur, Bangladesh. Adv Environ Eng Res, 2022, 3 4 1- 13

[191] Raihan A, Tuspekova A. Nexus between economic growth, energy use, agricultural productivity, and carbon dioxide emissions: new evidence from Nepal. Energy Nexus, 2022, 7

[192] Raj A, Jhariya MK (2023) Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry and Horticulture Based Farming Systems: Mitigating Climate Change and Advancing Food and Nutrition Security. In: Ghosh, S., Kumari Panda, A., Jung, C., Singh Bisht, S. (eds) Emerging Solutions in Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security. Springer, Cham, pp 143–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40908-0_7

[193] Raj A, Jhariya MK, Yadav DK, Banerjee A, Toppo P (2020) Agroforestry for climate change mitigation, natural resource management, and livelihood security. In: Raj A, Jhariya MK, Yadav DK, Banerjee A (eds) Climate change and agroforestry systems, Apple Academic Press, New York, pp 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429286759

[194] Rajput BS, Bhardwaj DR, Pala NA. Factors influencing biomass and carbon storage potential of different land use systems along an elevational gradient in temperate northwestern Himalaya. Agroforest Syst, 2017, 91: 479- 486

[195] Rasul G. Food, water, and energy security in South Asia: a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Environ Sci Policy, 2014, 39: 35- 48

[196] Rathore SS, Babu S, El-Sappah AH, Shekhawat K, Singh VK, Singh RK Integrated agroforestry systems improve soil carbon storage, water productivity, and economic returns in the marginal land of the semi-arid region. Saudi J Biol Sci, 2022, 29 10 103427

[197] Rathore SS, Babu S, Shekhawat K, Singh R, Yadav SK, Singh VK, Singh C. Designing energy cum carbon-efficient environmentally clean production system for achieving green economy in agriculture. Sustain Energy Technol Assess, 2022, 52

[198] Ringler C, Bhaduri A, Lawford R. The nexus across water, energy, land and food (WELF): potential for improved resource use efficiency?. Curr Opin Environ Sustain, 2013, 5 6 617- 624

[199] Rizvi RH, Newaj R, Chaturvedi OP, Prasad R, Handa AK, Alam B. Carbon sequestration and CO 2 absorption by agroforestry systems: an assessment for Central Plateau and Hill region of India. J Earth Syst Sci, 2019, 128 3 56

[200] Rolo V. Agroforestry for Sustainable Food Production. Sustainability, 2022, 14 16 10193

[201] Safari A, Sohrabi H, Powell S, Shataee S. A comparative assessment of multi-temporal Landsat 8 and machine learning algorithms for estimating aboveground carbon stock in coppice oak forests. Int J Remote Sens, 2017, 38: 6407- 6432

[202] Sahoo UK, Tripathi OP, Nath AJ, Deb S, Das DJ, Gupta A Quantifying tree diversity, carbon stocks, and sequestration potential for diverse land uses in Northeast India. Front Environ Sci, 2021

[203] Samadi-Foroushani M, Keyhanpour MJ, Musavi-Jahromi SH, Ebrahimi H. Integrated water resources management based on water governance and water-food-energy nexus through system dynamics and social network analyzing approaches. Water Resour Manage, 2022, 36 15 6093- 6113

[204] Santoro A, Venturi M, Bertani R, Agnoletti M. A review of the role of forests and agroforestry systems in the FAO globally important agricultural heritage systems (GIAHS) programme. Forests, 2020, 11 8 860

[205] Sauer TJ, Dold C, Ashworth AJ, Nieman CC, Hernandez-Ramirez G, Philipp D, et al. (2021) Agroforestry practices for soil conservation and resilient agriculture. In: Agroforestry and ecosystem services, pp 19–48

[206] Scales BR, Marsden SJ. Biodiversity in small-scale tropical agroforests: a review of species richness and abundance shifts and the factors influencing them. Environ Conserv, 2008, 35 2 160- 172

[207] Scardigno A. New solutions to reduce water and energy consumption in crop production: a water–energy–food nexus perspective. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health, 2020, 13: 11- 15

[208] Schaffer C, Eksvärd K, Björklund J. Can agroforestry grow beyond its niche and contribute to a transition toward sustainable agriculture in Sweden?. Sustainability, 2019, 11 13 3522

[209] Schindler Z, Morhart C, Sheppard JP, Frey J, Seifert T. In a nutshell: exploring single tree parameters and above-ground carbon sequestration potential of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) in agroforestry systems. Agrofor Syst, 2023, 97 6 1007- 1024

[210] Schneider LC, Lerner AM, McGroddy M, Rudel T. Assessing carbon sequestration of silvopastoral tropical landscapes using optical remote sensing and field measurements. J Land Use Sci, 2018, 13: 455- 472

[211] Seghieri J, Droy I, Hadgu K, Place F. Introduction to the special issue “scaling up of agroforestry innovations: enhancing food, nutrition and income security”. Agrofor Syst, 2021, 95: 1245- 1249

[212] Sharma P, Bhardwaj DR, Singh MK Geospatial technology in agroforestry: status, prospects, and constraints. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2022

[213] Sharma R, Mina U, Kumar BM. Homegarden agroforestry systems in achievement of sustainable development goals. A Rev Agron Sustain Dev, 2022, 42 3 44

[214] Sharma H, Pant KS, Bishist R, Gautam KL, Dogra R, Kumar M, Kumar A. Estimation of biomass and carbon storage potential in agroforestry systems of north-western Himalayas. India Catena, 2023, 225

[215] Shennan-Farpón Y, Mills M, Souza A, Homewood K. The role of agroforestry in restoring Brazil's Atlantic Forest: opportunities and challenges for smallholder farmers. People Nat, 2022, 4 2 462- 480

[216] Sileshi GW, Mafongoya PL, Nath AJ. Agroforestry systems for improving nutrient recycling and soil fertility on degraded lands. Agrofor Degrad Landsc: Recent Adv Emerg Chall, 2020, 1: 225- 253

[217] Sileshi GW, Dagar JC, Nath AJ, Kuntashula E (2023) Agroforestry as a Climate-Smart Agriculture: Strategic Interventions, Current Practices and Policies. In: Dagar JC, Gupta SR, Sileshi GW. (eds) Agroforestry for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in Asia and Africa. Sustainability Sciences in Asia and Africa. Springer, Singapore, pp 589–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4602-8_18

[218] Simelton ES, Catacutan DC, Dao TC, Dam BV, Le TD. Factors constraining and enabling agroforestry adoption in Viet Nam: a multi-level policy analysis. Agrofor Syst, 2017, 91: 51- 67

[219] Singh R, Bhardwaj DR, Pala NA, Rajput BS. Biomass production and carbon stock potential of natural vegetation, agroforestry and cultivated land use systems along altitudinal gradient in north-western Himalayas. Range Manage Agrofor, 2019, 40 1 94- 103

[220] Singh RK, Biradar CM, Behera MD, Prakash AJ, Das P, Mohanta MR Optimising carbon fixation through agroforestry: estimation of aboveground biomass using multi-sensor data synergy and machine learning. Ecol Inf, 2024, 79: 102408

[221] Sistla SA, Roddy AB, Williams NE, Kramer DB, Stevens K, Allison SD. Agroforestry practices promote biodiversity and natural resource diversity in Atlantic Nicaragua. PLoS ONE, 2016, 11 9

[222] Sivaranjani S, Panwar VP (2023) Carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems. In: Meena SK, Oliveira Ferreira AD, Meena VS, Rakshit, A, Shrestha RP, Rao CS, Siddique, KHM (eds) Agricultural soil sustainability and carbon management, Academic Press, pp 207–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95911-7.00010-4

[223] Sollen-Norrlin M, Ghaley BB, Rintoul NLJ. Agroforestry benefits and challenges for adoption in Europe and beyond. Sustainability, 2020, 12 17 7001

[224] Song Y, Zhang B, Wang J, Kwek K. The impact of climate change on China's agricultural green total factor productivity. Technol Forecast Soc Chang, 2022, 185

[225] Sudomo A, Nugroho AW (2023) Water, energy, and food nexus with agroforestry system for sustainable development goals. J Plant Sci Phytopathol 7:017-019. https://doi.org/10.29328/journal.jpsp.1001100

[226] Sudomo A, Hani A, Agus C, Nugroho AW, Utomo MMB, Indrajaya Y (2022) Intensification of Agroforestry Systems in Community Forests to Increase Land Productivity and Sustainable Food Sovereignty. In: Leal Filho W, Kovaleva M, Popkova, E. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security. World Sustainability Series. Springer, Cham, pp 183–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98617-9_11

[227] Sureshbhai PJ, Thakur NS, Jha SK, Kumar V. Productivity and carbon sequestration under prevalent agroforestry systems in Navsari District, Gujarat, India. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci, 2017, 6 9 3405- 3422

[228] Swamy SL, Puri S. Biomass production and C-sequestration of Gmelina arborea in plantation and agroforestry system in India. Agrofor Syst, 2005, 64: 181- 195

[229] Swamy SL, Mishra A, Puri S. Biomass production and root distribution of Gmelina arborea under an agrisilviculture system in subhumid tropics of Central India. New for, 2003, 26: 167- 186

[230] Taherdanak M, Zilouei H. Biogas production from agricultural residues: a review. Current Biochemical Engineering, 2016, 3 3 188- 199

[231] Tamang M, Chettri R, Vineeta, Shukla G, Bhat JA, Kumar A Stand structure, biomass and carbon storage in Gmelina arborea plantation at agricultural landscape in foothills of Eastern Himalayas. Land, 2021, 10 4 387

[232] Tang XL, Perez-Cruzado C, Vor T, Fehrmann L, Alvarez-Gonzalez JG, Kleinn C. Development of stand density management diagrams for Chinese fir plantations. Forestry, 2016, 89: 36- 45

[233] Tanwar SPS, Kumar P, Verma A, Bhatt RK, Singh A, Lal K, Patidar M, Mathur BK. Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems in the Indian arid zone. Curr Sci, 2019, 117 12 2014- 2022

[234] Tariyal N, Bijalwan A, Chaudhary S, Singh B, Dhanai CS, Tewari S Crop production and carbon sequestration potential of grewia oppositifolia-based traditional agroforestry systems in indian himalayan region. Land, 2022, 11 6 839

[235] Terêncio DPS, Fernandes LS, Cortes RMV, Moura JP, Pacheco FAL. Rainwater harvesting in catchments for agro-forestry uses: a study focused on the balance between sustainability values and storage capacity. Sci Total Environ, 2018, 613: 1079- 1092

[236] Thapa B, Lovell S, Wilson J (2023) Remote sensing and machine learning applications for aboveground biomass estimation in agroforestry systems: a review. Agroforest Syst 97:1097–1111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-023-00850-2

[237] Tian Y, Huang H, Zhou G Aboveground mangrove biomass estimation in Beibu Gulf using machine learning and UAV remote sensing. Sci Total Environ, 2021, 781

[238] Timko J, Le Billon P, Zerriffi H, Honey-Rosés J, de la Roche I, Gaston C A policy nexus approach to forests and the SDGs: tradeoffs and synergies. Curr Opin Environ Sustain, 2018, 34: 7- 12

[239] Timothy D, Onisimo M, Cletah S Remote sensing of aboveground forest biomass: a review. Trop Ecol, 2016, 57: 125- 132

[240] Tomar JMS, Ahmed A, Bhat JA, Kaushal R, Shukla G, Kumar R (2021) Potential and opportunities of agroforestry practices in combating land degradation. In: Agroforestry-small landholder’s tool for climate change resiliency and mitigation

[241] Toppo P, Oraon PR, Singh BK, Kumar A. Biomass, productivity and carbon sequestration of Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea-based silvipastoral system. Curr Sci, 2021, 121 12 1594

[242] Torreiro Y, Pérez L, Piñeiro G, Pedras F, Rodríguez-Abalde A. The role of energy valuation of agroforestry biomass on the circular economy. Energies, 2020, 13 10 2516

[243] Tscharntke T, Clough Y, Wanger TC, Jackson L, Motzke I, Perfecto I Global food security, biodiversity conservation, and the future of agricultural intensification. Biol Conserv Elsevier Ltd, 2012, 151: 53- 59

[244] Udawatta RP, Garrett HE, Jose S, Lovell ST (2021) Water Quality and Quantity Benefits of Agroforestry and Processes: Long-Term Case Studies from Missouri, USA. In: Udawatta RP, Jose S (eds) Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services. Springer, Cham, pp 113–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80060-4_6

[245] UNFCCC (2007) Report on the second workshop on reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries. Subsidiary body for scientific and technological advice. Item 5 of the provisional agenda: Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries. Twenty-sixth session, Bonn, 7–18 May 2007, p 18

[246] Urruth LM, Bassi JB, Chemello D. Policies to encourage agroforestry in the Southern Atlantic Forest. Land Use Policy, 2022, 112

[247] Usman M, Ibrahim F, Oyetola SO. Sustainable agriculture in relation to problems of soil degradation and how to amend such soils for optimum crop production in Nigeria. Int J Res Agric Food Sci, 2018, 4: 1- 17

[248] Vargas DCM, Hoyos CDPQ, Manrique OLH. The water-energy-food nexus in biodiversity conservation: a systematic review around sustainability transitions of agricultural systems. Heliyon, 2023, 9 7 E17016

[249] Viana HMM, Silva TND. FEW Nexus approach (water-energy-food nexus) to sustainable development through the UN SDGs. Revista De Administração Da UFSM, 2023, 16

[250] Viñals E, Maneja R, Rufí-Salís M, Martí M, Puy N. Reviewing social-ecological resilience for agroforestry systems under climate change conditions. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 869

[251] Vourdoubas J, Skoulou VK, GR73133 C (2017) Possibilities of upgrading solid underutilized lingo-cellulosic feedstock (carob pods) to liquid bio-fuel: bio-ethanol production and electricity generation in fuel cells-a critical appraisal of the required processes. Stud Eng Technol, 4(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.11114/set.v4i1.2170

[252] van Noordwijk M, Mbow C, Minang P (2015a) Trees as nexus for Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s): agroforestry for integrated options. ASB Policy Brief 50, ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi. http://www.asb.cgiar.org

[253] van Noordwijk M, Minang PA, Dewi S, Duguma L, Bernard F (2015b) Transforming REDD+ and achieving the SDGs through support for adaptation-mitigation synergy. ASB Policy Brief 46. ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, 4 pp, http://www.asb.cgiar.org

[254] Waldron A, Garrity D, Malhi Y, Girardin C, Miller DC, Seddon N. Agroforestry can enhance food security while meeting other sustainable development goals. Trop Conserv Sci, 2017, 10: 1940082917720667

[255] Walter H. Vegetation of the earth and ecological systems of the geo-biosphere, 2012 Berlin Springer Science & Business Media

[256] Wang SW, Kim W, Song C, Park E, Jo HW, Kim J, Lee WK. Relationships among water, food, energy, and ecosystems in the Mid-Latitude Region in the context of sustainable development goals. Environ Rev, 2022, 31 1 111- 121

[257] Wang Z, Yan W, Peng Y, Wan M, Farooq TH, Fan W Biomass production and carbon stocks in poplar-crop agroforestry chronosequence in subtropical central China. Plants, 2023, 12 13 2451

[258] Waring BG, Powers JS. Overlooking what is underground: Root: shoot ratios and coarse root allometric equations for tropical forests. For Ecol Manage, 2017, 385: 10- 15

[259] Weiwei L, Wenhua L, Moucheng L, Fuller AM. Traditional agroforestry systems: one type of globally important agricultural heritage systems. J Resour Ecol, 2014, 5 4 306- 313

[260] Wicaksono A, Jeong G, Kang D. Water, energy, and food nexus: a review of global implementation and simulation model development. Water Policy, 2017, 19 3 440- 462

[261] Wright HL, Lake IR, Dolman PM. Agriculture—a key element for conservation in the developing world. Conserv Lett, 2012, 5 1 11- 19

[262] Wu C, Shen H, Shen A Comparison of machine learning methods for above-ground biomass estimation based on Landsat imagery. J Appl Remote Sens, 2016, 10

[263] Xie J, Wang C, Ma D Generating spatiotemporally continuous grassland aboveground biomass on the Tibetan plateau through PROSAIL model inversion on google earth engine. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens, 2022, 60: 1- 10

[264] Xu R, Wang L, Zhang J, Zhou J, Cheng S, Tigabu M Growth rate and leaf functional traits of four broad-leaved species underplanted in Chinese fir plantations with different tree density levels. Forests, 2022, 13 2 308

[265] Xue J, Huang C, Chang J, Sun H, Zeng F, Lei J, Liu G. Water use efficiencies, economic tradeoffs, and portfolio optimizations of diversification farm systems in a desert oasis of Northwest China. Agrofor Syst, 2021, 95: 1703- 1718

[266] Yadava AK. Biomass production and carbon sequestration in different agroforestry systems in Tarai region of Central Himalaya. Indian Forester, 2010, 136 2 234- 244

[267] Yang X, Blagodatsky S, Liu F, Beckschaefer P, Xu J, Cadisch G. Rubber tree allometry, biomass partitioning and carbon stocks in mountainous landscapes of sub-tropical China. For Ecol Manage, 2017, 404: 84- 99

[268] Yasin G, Ur Rahman S, Farrakh Nawaz M, Qadir I, Zubair M, Gul S Estimating carbon stocks and biomass accumulation in three different agroforestry patterns in the semi-arid region of Pakistan. Carbon Manage, 2021, 12 6 593- 602

[269] Yuen JQ, Ziegler AD, Webb EL, Ryan CM. Uncertainty in below-ground carbon biomass for major land covers in Southeast Asia. For Ecol Manage, 2013, 310: 915- 926

[270] Zahoor S, Dutt V, Mughal AH, Pala NA, Qaisar KN, Khan PA. Apple-based agroforestry systems for biomass production and carbon sequestration: implication for food security and climate change contemplates in temperate region of Northern Himalaya, India. Agrofor Syst, 2021, 95: 367- 382

[271] Zaro GC, Caramori PH, Yada Junior GM, Sanquetta CR, Filho AA, Nunes AL Carbon sequestration in an agroforestry system of coffee with rubber trees compared to open-grown coffee in southern Brazil. Agrofor Syst, 2020, 94: 799- 809

[272] Zhang Q, Zhang M, Zhou P, Fang Y, Ji Y. Impact of tree species on barley rhizosphere-associated fungi in an agroforestry ecosystem as revealed by 18S rDNA PCR-DGGE. Agrofor Syst, 2018, 92: 541- 554

[273] Zhang Y, Ma J, Liang S An evaluation of eight machine learning regression algorithms for forest aboveground biomass estimation from multiple satellite data products. Remote Sens, 2020, 12: 4015

[274] Zhang X, Wu Z, Xu Z, Xu L, Xu Q, Lin J. Estimated biomass carbon in thinned Cunninghamia lanceolate plantations at different stand-ages. J for Res, 2021, 32: 1489- 1501

[275] Zhao D, Lei Q, Shi Y, Wang M, Chen S, Shah K, Ji W. Role of species and planting configuration on transpiration and microclimate for urban trees. Forests, 2020, 11 8 825

[276] Zhu X, Liu W, Chen J, Bruijnzeel LA, Mao Z, Yang X Reductions in water, soil and nutrient losses and pesticide pollution in agroforestry practices: a review of evidence and processes. Plant Soil, 2020, 453: 45- 86

[277] Zomer RJ, Neufeldt H, Xu J, Ahrends A, Bossio D, Trabucco A Global tree cover and biomass carbon on agricultural land: the contribution of agroforestry to global and national carbon budgets. Sci Rep, 2016, 6 1 29987