(Re)-thinking the red seaweed biomass for biofuel production to meet sustainable development goals toward circular bioeconomy

Abstract

The present energy demand and technological advancements in biofuel generation favor bioethanol, biobutanol, biodiesel, biogas, and biohydrogen production from renewable substrates. Bioethanol is one of the clean biofuels that has gained widespread acceptance as an alternative to fossil fuels and can be easily adapted in the automotive industry to design engines. Up to date, the commercial production of bioethanol obtained from first-generation biomass as substrates have led to a "Food vs. Fuel" issue. The ecosystem is affected by the use of hazardous pesticides and fertilizers in the cultivation of first-generation crops. These issues compel us to focus on a varied group of autotrophic organisms, the seaweeds, in this article as a potential replacement substrate for bioethanol production. Recently, the spent biomass of the seaweed industry and the economically viable seaweeds that drift on shore have been widely focused on generating revenue by many entrepreneurs and also helping farmers generate additional income from seaweed collection and processing. Classification and status of seaweed research were initially discussed in this article, and characteristics, pretreatment, bioethanol production of seaweed biomass, and spent seaweed biomass were articulated extensively. Eventually, a bioethanol economic scenario was developed to decipher the commercial feasibility of bioethanol in India.

Keywords

Seaweeds / Biofuel / Bioethanol / Pretreatment / Fermentation / Economic analysis

References

[1] Abhilash PC, Tripathi V, Edrisi SA Sustainability of crop production from polluted lands. Energy Ecol Environ, 2016, 1: 54-65

[2] Adams JMM, Toop TA, Donnison IS, Gallagher JA. Seasonal variation in Laminaria digitata and its impact on biochemical conversion routes to biofuels. Bioresour Technol, 2011, 102: 9976-9984

[3] Adegboye MF, Ojuederie OB, Talia PM, Babalola OO. Bioprospecting of microbial strains for biofuel production: metabolic engineering, applications, and challenges. Biotechnol Biofuels, 2021, 14: 1-21

[4] Aftab MN, Iqbal I, Riaz F (2019) Different Pretreatment Methods of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Use in Biofuel Production. 1–24

[5] Agger JW, Nilsen PJ, Eijsink VGH, Horn SJ. On the determination of water content in biomass processing. BioEnergy Res, 2013, 7(1): 442-449

[6] Álvarez-Viñas M, Flórez-Fernández N, Torres MD, Domínguez H. Successful approaches for a red seaweed biorefinery. Mar Drugs, 2019, 17: 620

[7] Balan V. Current challenges in commercially producing biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass. ISRN Biotechnol, 2014, 2014: 1-31

[8] Balat M. Production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic materials via the biochemical pathway: a review. Energy Convers Manag, 2011, 52: 858-875

[9] Bardant TB, Triwahyuni E, Muryant, Simulation for integrating bioethanol production in existing commercial agar extraction plant toward zero waste technology. Agricult Nat Resour, 2021, 55: 893-903

[10] Behera DP, Vadodariya V, Veeragurunathan V Seaweeds cultivation methods and their role in climate mitigation and environmental cleanup. Total Environ Res Themes, 2022, 3: 100016

[11] Bird KT, Chynoweth DP, Jerger DE. Effects of marine algal proximate composition on methane yields. J Appl Phycol, 1990, 2: 207-213

[12] Borines MG, de Leon RL, Cuello JL. Bioethanol production from the macroalgae Sargassum spp. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 138: 22-29

[13] Buschmann AH, Camus C, Infante J Seaweed production: overview of the global state of exploitation, farming and emerging research activity. Eur J Phycol, 2017, 52: 391-406

[14] Cai J, Lovatelli A, Aguilar-Manjarrez J, et al (2021). Seaweeds and microalgae: an overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1229. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5670en

[15] Cesário MT, da Fonseca MMR, Marques MM, de Almeida MCMD. Marine algal carbohydrates as carbon sources for the production of biochemicals and biomaterials. Biotechnol Adv, 2018, 36: 798-817

[16] Chauhan PS, Saxena A. Bacterial carrageenases: an overview of production and biotechnological applications. 3 Biotech, 2016, 6(2): 146

[17] Chopin T, Tacon AGJ. Importance of seaweeds and extractive species in global aquaculture production. Rev Fisheries Sci Aquacult, 2021, 29: 139-148

[18] Dyah M, Meinita N, Kang J Bioethanol production from the acid hydrolysate of the carrageenophyte Kappaphycus alvarezii ( cottonii). J Appl Phycol, 2012, 24: 857-862

[19] Dyah M, Meinita N, Marhaeni B. Comparison of agarophytes ( Gelidium, Gracilaria, and Gracilariopsis ) as potential resources for bioethanol production. J Appl Phycol, 2013, 25: 1957-1961

[20] Faludi G, Dora G, Renner K Biocomposite from polylactic acid and lignocellulosic fibers: structure-property correlations. Carbohydr Polym, 2013, 92: 1767-1775

[21] FAO (2020) FAO. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/ca9229en.pdf

[22] Ganesan M, Trivedi N, Gupta V Seaweed resources in India - Current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Bot Mar, 2019, 62: 463-482

[23] Gao D, Uppugundla N, Chundawat SPS Hemicellulases and auxiliary enzymes for improved conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to monosaccharides. Biotechnol Biofuels, 2011, 4: 5

[24] Ge L, Wang P, Mou H. Study on saccharification techniques of seaweed wastes for the transformation of ethanol. Renew Energy, 2011, 36: 84-89

[25] Ghadiryanfar M, Rosentrater KA, Keyhani A, Omid M. A review of macroalgae production, with potential applications in biofuels and bioenergy. Renew Sustainable Energy Rev, 2016, 54: 473-481

[26] Godvin Sharmila V, Dinesh Kumar M, Pugazhendi A Biofuel production from Macroalgae: present scenario and future scope. Bioengineered, 2021, 12: 9216

[27] Goh CS, Lee KT. A visionary and conceptual macroalgae-based third-generation bioethanol (TGB) biorefinery in Sabah Malaysia as an underlay for renewable and sustainable development. Renew Sustainable Energy Rev, 2010, 14(2): 842-848

[28] Greetham D, Adams JM, Du C. The utilization of seawater for the hydrolysis of macroalgae and subsequent bioethanol fermentation. Scientific Rep, 2020, 10: 1-15

[29] Harun R, Yip JWS, Thiruvenkadam S Algal biomass conversion to bioethanol-a step-by-step assessment. Biotechnol J, 2014, 9: 73-86

[30] Hernández D, Riaño B, Coca M, García-González MC. Saccharification of carbohydrates in microalgal biomass by physical, chemical and enzymatic pre-treatments as a previous step for bioethanol production. Chem Eng J, 2015, 262: 939-945

[31] Hessami MJ, Cheng SF, Ambati RR Bioethanol production from agarophyte red seaweed, Gelidium elegans, using a novel sample preparation method for analysing bioethanol content by gas chromatography. 3 Biotech, 2019, 9: 1-8

[32] Hong K, Vongsangnak W, Vemuri GN, Nielsen J. Unravelling evolutionary strategies of yeast for improving galactose utilization through integrated systems level analysis. Proc National Acad Sci, 2011

[33] Ht K, Ej Y, Wang D High temperature and low acid pretreatment and agarase treatment of agarose for the production of sugar and ethanol from red seaweed biomass. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 136: 582-587

[34] Iiboshi P, Araújo C, Carlos A, Pereira N. Bioresource Technology Production of ethanol 3G from Kappaphycus alvarezii : Evaluation of different process strategies. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 134: 257-263

[35] Kamei I, Hirota Y, Mori T Bioresource Technology Direct ethanol production from cellulosic materials by the hypersaline-tolerant white-rot fungus Phlebia sp. MG-60. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 112: 137-142

[36] Kawai S, Murata K. Biofuel production based on carbohydrates from both brown and red macroalgae : recent developments in key biotechnologies. Int J Mol Sci, 2016

[37] Khambhaty Y, Mody K, Gandhi MR Kappaphycus alvarezii as a source of bioethanol. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 103: 180-185

[38] Khambhaty Y, Upadhyay D, Kriplani Y Bioethanol from macroalgal biomass: utilization of marine yeast for production of the same. BioEnergy Res, 2012, 6: 188-195

[39] Khatri K, Rathore MS, Agrawal S, Jha B. Sugar contents and oligosaccharide mass profiling of selected red seaweeds to assess the possible utilization of biomasses for third-generation biofuel production. Biomass Bioenergy, 2019, 130

[40] Kim HM, Wi SG, Jung S Efficient approach for bioethanol production from red seaweed Gelidium amansii. Bioresour Technol, 2015, 175: 128-134

[41] Konda NVSNM, Singh S, Simmons BA, Klein-Marcuschamer D. An Investigation on the Economic Feasibility of Macroalgae as a Potential Feedstock for Biorefineries. Bioenergy Res, 2015, 8: 1046-1056

[42] Koppolu V, Vasigala VK. Role of Escherichia coli in biofuel production. Microbiol Insights, 2016

[43] Korzen L, Pulidindi IN, Israel A Single step production of bioethanol from the seaweed Ulva rigida using sonication. RSC Adv, 2015, 5: 16223-16229

[44] Kostas ET, White DA, Cook DJ. Bioethanol production from UK seaweeds: investigating variable pre-treatment and enzyme hydrolysis parameters. Bioenergy Res, 2020, 13: 271-285

[45] Krishnan MS, Ho NWY, Tsao GT. Fermentation kinetics of ethanol production from glucose and xylose by recombinant Saccharomyces 1400(pLNH33). Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 1999, 77–79: 373-388

[46] Kumar G, Sahoo D. Effect of seaweed liquid extract on growth and yield of Triticum aestivum var Pusa Gold. J Appl Phycol, 2011, 23: 251-255

[47] Kumar P, Barrett DM, Delwiche MJ Methods for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for efficient hydrolysis and biofuel production methods for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for efficient hydrolysis and biofuel production. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2009

[48] Kumar S, Gupta R, Kumar G Bioethanol production from Gracilaria verrucosa, a red alga, in a biorefinery approach. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 135: 150-156

[49] Lalegerie F, Lajili S, Bedoux G Photo-protective compounds in red macroalgae from Brittany: considerable diversity in mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs). Mar Environ Res, 2019, 147: 37-48

[50] Leong RZL, Chang VS, Lim LH, Sen TS. Potential of by-product of kappaphycus alvarezii derived from bioethanol production as biofertilizer in growing of ocimum basilicum in an aquaponic system. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci, 2022, 45: 677-696

[51] Lin H, Wang Q, Shen Q Genetic engineering of microorganisms for biodiesel production. Bioengineered, 2013, 4: 292-304

[52] Loureiro R, Gachon CMM, Rebours C. Seaweed cultivation: potential and challenges of crop domestication at an unprecedented pace. New Phytol, 2015, 206: 489-492

[53] Mantri VA, Ganesan M, Gupta V An overview on agarophyte trade in India and need for policy interventions. J Appl Phycol, 2019

[54] Mantri VA, Kavale MG, Kazi MA. Seaweed biodiversity of India: reviewing current knowledge to identify gaps, challenges, and opportunities. Diversity (basel), 2020, 12: 13

[55] Mantri VA, Ghosh A, Eswaran K, Ganesan M. Notes on recommendations for enabling policy interventions in the seaweed cultivation and processing domain in India. Sustainability (switzerland), 2022

[56] Maria A, Galletti R, Antonetti C (2011) Lignocellulosic biomass

[57] Mechery J, Biji B, Thomas DM, Sylas VP. Biohydrogen production by locally isolated facultative bacterial species using the biomass of Eichhornia crassipes: effect of acid and alkali treatment. Energy Ecol Environ, 2017, 2: 350-359

[58] Michalak I. Experimental processing of seaweeds for biofuels. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Energy Environ, 2018

[59] Mwiti G, Yeo IS, Jeong KH Activation of galactose utilization by the addition of glucose for the fermentation of agar hydrolysate using Lactobacillus brevis ATCC 14869. Biotechnol Lett, 2022, 44: 823-830

[60] Nagula K, Sati H, Trivedi N, Reddy CRK (2022) Biofuels and bioproducts from seaweeds. Advanced Biofuel Technologies: Present Status, Challenges and Future Prospects https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88427-3.00012-X

[61] Nayar S, Bott K. Current status of global cultivated seaweed production and markets. World Aquacult, 2014, 45: 32-37

[62] Nazemi F, Karimi K, Denayer JFM, Shafiei M. Techno-economic aspects of different process approaches based on brown macroalgae feedstock: A step toward commercialization of seaweed-based biorefineries. Algal Res, 2021

[63] Nguyen TH, Ra CH, Sunwoo IY Bioethanol production from Gracilaria verrucosa using Saccharomyces cerevisiae adapted to NaCl or galactose. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 2017, 40: 529-536

[64] Nguyen TH, Sunwoo IY, Jeong GT, Kim SK. Detoxification of hydrolysates of the red seaweed gelidium amansii for improved bioethanol production. Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 2019, 188: 977-990

[65] Nguyen TVT, Unpaprom Y, Manmai N Impact and significance of pretreatment on the fermentable sugar production from low-grade longan fruit wastes for bioethanol production. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 2020, 2020: 1-13

[66] Nirmal Kumar JI, Kumar RN, Amb MK Variation of biochemical composition of eighteen marine macroalgae collected from Okha coast, Gulf of Kutch, India. Elec J Env Agricult Food Chem Title, 2010, 9: 404-410

[67] Offei F, Mensah M, Thygesen A, Kemausuor F. Seaweed bioethanol production: a process selection review on hydrolysis and fermentation. Fermentation, 2018, 4: 99

[68] Pardilhó S, Costa E, Melo D Comprehensive characterisation of marine macroalgae waste and impact of oil extraction, focusing on the biomass recovery potential. Algal Res, 2021

[69] Park EY, Park JK. Enzymatic saccharification of laminaria japonica by cellulase for the production of reducing sugars. Energies (basel), 2020

[70] Park JH, Hong JY, Jang HC Use of Gelidium amansii as a promising resource for bioethanol: a practical approach for continuous dilute-acid hydrolysis and fermentation. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 108: 83-88

[71] Park YR, Yang JW, Sunwoo IY Enhancement of catabolite regulatory genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to increase ethanol production using hydrolysate from red seaweed Gloiopeltis furcata. J Biotechnol, 2021, 333: 1-9

[72] Polikovsky M, Califano G, Dunger N Engineering bacteria-seaweed symbioses for modulating the photosynthate content of Ulva (Chlorophyta): Significant for the feedstock of bioethanol production. Algal Res, 2020

[73] Prasad Behera D, Vadodariya V, Veeragurunathan V Seaweeds cultivation methods and their role in climate mitigation and environmental cleanup. Total Environ Res Themes, 2022, 3–4

[74] Priya S, Tiwari R, Rana S Saccharification of biopretreated paddy straw with indigenous holocellulase and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae LN1 under optimized conditions. Energy Ecol Environ, 2016, 1: 419-429

[75] Ra CH, Nguyen TH, Jeong GT, Kim SK. Evaluation of hyper thermal acid hydrolysis of Kappaphycus alvarezii for enhanced bioethanol production. Bioresour Technol, 2016, 209: 66-72

[76] Rhein-Knudsen N, Ale MT, Meyer AS. Seaweed hydrocolloid production: an update on enzyme assisted extraction and modification technologies. Mar Drugs, 2015, 13: 3340-3359

[77] Rodrigues D, Freitas AC, Pereira L Chemical composition of red, brown and green macroalgae from Buarcos bay in Central West Coast of Portugal. Food Chem, 2015, 183: 197-207

[78] Roozbehani B, Mirdrikvand M, Moqadam SI, Roshan AC. Synthetic ethanol production in the middle east: a way to make environmentally friendly fuels. Chem Technol Fuels Oils, 2013, 49(2): 115-124

[79] Sakthi Vignesh N, Vimali E, Sangeetha R Sustainable biofuel from microalgae: Application of lignocellulosic wastes and bio-iron nanoparticle for biodiesel production. Fuel, 2020, 278

[80] Salmi T, Holmbom B, Willf S, Murzin DY. Synthesis of sugars by hydrolysis of hemicelluloses- a review. Chem Rev, 2011, 111: 5638-5666

[81] Saranya G, Subashchandran MD, Mesta P, Ramachandra TV. Prioritization of prospective third-generation biofuel diatom strains. Energy Ecol Environ, 2018, 3: 338-354

[82] Schubert C. Can biofuels finally take center stage?. Nat Biotechnol, 2006, 24: 777-784

[83] Schultze-Jena A, Vroon RC, Macleod AKA Production of acetone, butanol, and ethanol by fermentation of Saccharina latissima: cultivation enzymatic hydrolysis inhibitor removal and fermentation. Algal Res, 2022

[84] Schultz-jensen N, Thygesen A, Leipold F Bioresource Technology Pretreatment of the macroalgae Chaetomorpha linum for the production of bioethanol – Comparison of five pretreatment technologies. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 140: 36-42

[85] Shukla R, Kumar M, Chakraborty S Process development for the production of bioethanol from waste algal biomass of Gracilaria verrucosa. Bioresour Technol, 2016, 220: 584-589

[86] Siddhanta AK, Prasad K, Meena R Bioresource technology profiling of cellulose content in Indian seaweed species. Bioresour Technol, 2009, 100: 6669-6673

[87] Singh A, Olsen SI. A critical review of biochemical conversion, sustainability and life cycle assessment of algal biofuels. Appl Energy, 2011, 88: 3548-3555

[88] Singh R, Krishna BB, Mishra G Strategies for selection of thermo-chemical processes for the valorisation of biomass. Renew Energy, 2016

[89] Smith AM, Ross AB. Production of bio-coal, bio-methane and fertilizer from seaweed via hydrothermal carbonisation. Algal Res, 2016, 16: 1-11

[90] Smith AM, Ross AB. Production of bio-coal, bio-methane and fertilizer from seaweed via hydrothermal carbonisation. ALGAL, 2016, 16: 1-11

[91] Socha AM, Parthasarathi R, Shi J Efficient biomass pretreatment using ionic liquids derived from lignin and hemicellulose. Proc National Acad Sci, 2014

[92] Statham BA, World Energy Council. (2007) Deciding the future: energy policy scenarios to 2050. World Energy Council

[93] Sudhakar MP, Jegatheesan A, Poonam C Biosaccharification and ethanol production from spent seaweed biomass using marine bacteria and yeast. Renew Energy, 2017, 105: 133-139

[94] Sudhakar MP, Kumar BR, Mathimani T, Arunkumar K. A review on bioenergy and bioactive compounds from microalgae and macroalgae-sustainable energy perspective. J Clean Prod, 2019, 228: 1320-1333

[95] Sukwong P, Ra CH, Sunwoo IY Improved fermentation performance to produce bioethanol from Gelidium amansii using Pichia stipitis adapted to galactose. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 2018, 41: 953-960

[96] Tan IS, Lee KT. Enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation of seaweed solid wastes for bioethanol production: An optimization study. Energy, 2014, 78: 53-62

[97] Trivedi N, Gupta V, Reddy CRK, Jha B. Enzymatic hydrolysis and production of bioethanol from common macrophytic green alga Ulva fasciata Delile. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 150: 106-112

[98] Troell M, Henriksson PJG, Buschmann AH Farming the Ocean-Seaweeds as a Quick Fix for the Climate?. Rev Fisheries Sci Aquacult, 2022

[99] Turner W, Greetham D, Du C. The characterisation of Wickerhamomyces anomalus M15, a highly tolerant yeast for bioethanol production using seaweed derived medium. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022

[100] Vijay Anand KG, Eswaran K, Ghosh A. Life cycle impact assessment of a seaweed product obtained from Gracilaria edulis – A potent plant biostimulant. J Clean Prod, 2018, 170: 1621-1627

[101] Wadi A, Ahmad A, Tompo M, et al (2019) Production of Bioethanol from Seaweed, Gracilaria verrucosa and Eucheuma cottonii, by Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation Methods. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Institute of Physics Publishing

[102] Wang X, Liu X, Wang G. Two-stage hydrolysis of invasive algal feedstock for ethanol fermentation. J Integr Plant Biol, 2011, 53: 246-252

[103] Wang X, He L, Ma Y, et al (2020) Economically important red algae resources along the Chinese coast: History, status, and prospects for their utilization. Algal Res 46

[104] Wei N, Quarterman J, Jin Y. Marine macroalgae : an untapped resource for producing fuels and chemicals. Trends Biotechnol, 2013, 31: 70-77

[105] Weldemhret TG, Nisola GM, Valdehuesa KNG Ionic liquid pretreatment in tandem with recombinant agarase cocktail saccharification of gelidium amansii for d -Galactose and 3,6-Anhydro- l -galactose production. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2019, 7: 7563-7571

[106] Winarni I, Uju SJ, Wibowo T. Bioethanol production from seaweed solid waste biomass of agar processing. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci, 2022, 1027

[107] Yanagisawa M, Kawai S, Murata K. Strategies for the production of high concentrations of bioethanol from seaweeds Production of high concentrations of bioethanol from seaweeds. Bioengineered, 2013, 4: 224-235

[108] Yoon MH, Lee YW, Lee CH, Seo YB. Simultaneous production of bio-ethanol and bleached pulp from red algae. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 126: 198-201

[109] Yoza BA, Masutani EM. The analysis of macroalgae biomass found around Hawaii for bioethanol production. Environ Technol, 2013, 34: 1859-1867

[110] Yun EJ, Lee S, Kim HT The novel catabolic pathway of 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose, the main component of red macroalgae, in a marine bacterium. Environ Microbiol, 2015, 17: 1677-1688

[111] Yun EJ, Yu S, Kim KH. Current knowledge on agarolytic enzymes and the industrial potential of agar-derived sugars. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2017, 101: 5581-5589

[112] Yusoff MNAM, Zulkifli NWM, Masum BM, Masjuki HH. Feasibility of bioethanol and biobutanol as transportation fuel in spark-ignition engine: a review. RSC Adv, 2015, 5: 100184-100211

[113] Zakaria NZI, Arbain D, Ahmad MN, Dzahir MIHM (2014) Galactose consuming microbes for ethanol production from seaweed. In: Advanced Materials Research. Trans Tech Publications, pp 219–222

[114] Zakaria NZI, Zhen AW, Mohd Hassan SA, Zakaria Z (2020) Optimization on fermentation of seaweed (Gracilaria sp) as feedstock for bioethanol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing Ltd

[115] Zhao Y, Bourgougnon N, Lanoisellé JL, Lendormi T. Biofuel production from seaweeds: a comprehensive review. Energies (basel), 2022, 15(24): 9395

[116] Zhou F, Liu P, Liu Q Extending galactose-oxidation pathway of Pseudomonas putida for utilization of galactose-rich red macroalgae as sustainable feedstock. J Biotechnol, 2022, 348: 1-9