Mesophilic bioleaching performance of copper, cobalt and nickel with emphasis on complex orebodies of the Democratic Republic of Congo: a review of dynamic interactions between solids loading, microbiota activity and growth

Abstract

The copper, cobalt and nickel ores are still currently mined in the world. Its complex mineralogy creates extraction challenges by means of conventional metallurgical methods. Meanwhile, dealing with mesophilic strains in leaching process requires a compromise between solid loading and microbiota activity and growth. That is why, the influence of solid loading with fine or coarse particulates, the cell disturbance during the metal–microbes interactions depending upon the influence of gangue nature as well as metallic ions concentration on bacterial tolerance and the chemical and biological pathways involved in bioleaching mechanism of complex ores are summarised in detail in this paper. The current trends in mechanism research and diverse discovered set of microbiota and bacterial population coupled with bacterial adaptation methods contribute to optimise and improve the metals leaching performance and knowledge. In addition, the different existing complex mineralogical structures elaborate a main indirect mechanism with two different transitory mechanisms, before metal is converted into metal sulphate as wealthily explained in this comprehensive review. More data for cost analysis concomitant with extraction efficiency of metals using mesophilic bioleaching process are needed. However, it does not mean that other options are excluded in order to set a bio-hydrometallurgical chain. In fact, to consider also the concentration and purification of the pregnant leaching solution via phase separation and solvent extraction will be helpful. This obeys to the idea of option trees, where possible options are then systematically gaged with respect to critical criteria.

Keywords

Mesophilic bioleaching / Microbiota / Copper / Cobalt / Nickel / Sustainability / Environment

References

[1] Abdollahi H, Shaefaei S-Z, Noaparast M, Anafi Z, Aslan N. Bio-dissolution of Cu, Mo and Re from molybdenite concentrate using a mix mesophilic microorganism in shake flask. Trans Nonferr Met Soc China, 2013, 23(1): 219-230

[2] Ahmadi A, Schaffie M, Manafi Z, Ranjbar M. Electrochemical bioleaching of high-grade chalcopyrite flotation concentrates in a stirred bioreactor. Hydrometallurgy, 2010, 104(1): 99-105

[3] Albert RA, Archambault J, Rossello-Mora R, Tindall BJ, Matheny M. Bacillus acidicola sp. Nov., A novel mesophilic acidophilic species isolated from acidic Sphagnum peat bogs in Wisconsin. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2005, 55: 2125-2130

[4] Azabou S, Mechichi T, Sayadi S. Zinc precipitation by heavy-metal tolerant sulfate reducing bacteria enriched on phosphogypsum as sulfate source. Miner Eng, 2007, 2(20): 173-178

[5] Baker BJ, Banfield JF. Microbial communities in acid mine drainage. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, 2003, 44: 139-152

[6] Ballerstedt H, Pakostova E, Johnson DB, Schippers A. Approaches for eliminating Bacteria introduced during in situ bioleaching of Fractured Sulfidic Ores in deep subsurface. Solid State Phenom, 2017, 262: 70-74

[7] Bampole D-L, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F. Comparative study of simultaneous removal performance of silica and solid colloidal particles from chalcopyrite bioleachate solution by washing and coagulation methods. J Sustain Metall, 2018, 4(4): 470-484

[8] Bampole D-L, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F. Removal performance of silica and solid colloidal particles from chalcopyrite bioleaching solution: Effect of coagulant (Magnafloc set #1597) for predicting an effective solvent extraction. Eng J, 2018, 22(5): 123-139

[9] Bampole D-L, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F (2019) Bioleaching of chalcopyrite and pyritic chalcocite using indigenous mesophilic bacteria. M-tech Thesis, University of Johannesburg. Johannesburg, South Africa

[10] Bampole D-L, Mulamba E-L. Mathematical modelling for enhancement heap leaching Of D.M.S. tailings for the recovering copper and cobalt: using the Taguchi method and analysis of variance. Int Organ Sci Res J IORS, 2017, 5(10): 50-57

[11] Bampole D-L, Luis P, Mulamba E-L. Effect of Substrates during the adaptation of indigenous bacteria in bioleaching of sulphide ores. Am Sci Res J Eng Technol Sci ASRJETS, 2017, 32(1): 200-214

[12] Bampole D-L, Luis P, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F. Sustainable copper extraction from mixed chalcopyrite-chalcocite using biomass. Trans Nonferr Met, 2019, 29(10): 2170-2182

[13] Battaglia-Brunet F, Joulian C, Garrido F, Dictor M-C, Morin D, Coupland K, Johnson D-B, Hallberg K-B, Baranger P. An arsenic (III)-oxidizing bacterial population: selection, characterization, and performance in reactors. J Appl Microbiol, 2002, 93: 656-667

[14] Batumike M-J, Cailteux J-L, Kampunzu A-B. Lithostratigraphy, basin development, base metal deposits, and regional correlations of the Neoproterozoic Nguba and Kundelungu rock successions, central African copperbelt. Gondwana Res, 2007, 11(3): 432-447

[15] Behera S-K, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F. Advances in microbial leaching processes for nickel extraction from lateritic minerals—a review. Korean J Chem Eng, 2015, 32: 1447-1454

[16] Behera S-K, Manjaiah M, Sekar S, Panda K, Mavumengwana V, Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F. Optimization of microbial leaching of base metals from a South African sulfidic nickel ore concentrate by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. Geomicrobiol J, 2017, 35(6): 1-13

[17] Bobadilla-Fazzini Roberto A. Mineralogical dynamics of primary copper sulfides mediated by acidophilic biofilm formation. Solid State Phenom, 2017, 262: 325-329

[18] Bond P-L, Druschel G-K, Banfield J-F. Comparison of acid mine drainage microbial communities in physically and geochemically distinct ecosystems. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2000, 66(11): 4962-4971

[19] Bond P-L, Smriga S-P, Banfield J-F. Phylogeny of microorganisms populating a thick, subaerial, predominantly lithotrophic biofilm at an extreme acid mine drainage site. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2000, 66(9): 3842-3849

[20] Bomberg M, Mäkinen J, Salo M, Arnold M, Koukkari P (2017) Rare earth elements recovery and sulphate removal from phosphogypsum wastewaters with sulphate reducing bacteria. In: 22nd International biohydrometallurgy symposium solid state phenomena, vol 262, pp 573–576

[21] Brierley C-L. How will bio-mining be applied in future?. Trans Nonferr Met Soc China, 2008, 18(6): 1302-1310

[22] Bulatovic S-M. Handbook of flotation reagents: chemistry, theory and practice – Flotation of sulfide ores, 2007 Amsterdam, NL Elsevier 5-42

[23] Chandra C-S, Srichandan H, Kim D-J, Akcil A. Biohydrometallurgy and bio-mineral processing technology: a review on its past, present and future. Res J Recent Sci, 2012, 1(10): 85-99

[24] Clark D-W, Newell A-J-H, Chilman G-F, Capps P-G. Improving flotation recovery of copper sulphides by nitrogen gas and sulphidisation conditioning. Miner Eng, 2000, 13(12): 1197-1206

[25] Crundwell FK. How do bacteria interact with minerals?. Hydrometallurgy, 2003, 71(1–2): 75-81

[26] Denef V-J, Mueller R-S, Banfield J-F. AMD biofilms: using model communities to study microbial evolution and ecological complexity in nature. Int Soc Microbial Ecol, 2010, 4: 599-610

[27] Deveci H, Akcil A, Alp I. Bioleaching of complex zinc sulphides using mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria: comparative importance of pH and iron. Hydrometallurgy, 2004, 73(3–4): 293-303

[28] Dopson M, Johnson D-B. Biodiversity, metabolism and applications of acidophilic sulfur-metabolizing microorganisms. Environ Microbiol, 2012, 14: 2620-2631

[29] Dreisinger D. Copper leaching from primary sulphides: options for biological and chemical extraction of copper. Hydrometallurgy, 2006, 83(1–4): 10-20

[30] Edwards K-J, Gihring T-M, Banfield J-F. Seasonal variations in microbial populations and environmental conditions in an extreme acid mine drainage environment. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1999, 65: 3627-3632

[31] Escobar B, Lazo D. Activation of bacteria in agglomerated ores by changing the composition of the leaching solution. Hydrometallurgy, 2003, 71: 173-178

[32] François A. Bartholomé P. Stratigraphie, tectonique et minéralisations dans l’arc cuprifère du Shaba (République du Zaïre). Gisements Stratiformes et Provinces Cuprifères, 1974 Liège La Société Géologique de Belgique 79-101

[33] Fu K-B, Lin H, Wang H, Wen H-W, Wen Z-L. Comparative study on the passivation layers of copper sulphide minerals during bioleaching. Int J Miner Metall Mater, 2012, 19(10): 886-892

[34] Gericke M, Govender Y. Bioleaching strategies for the treatment of nickel-copper sulphide concentrates. Miner Eng, 2011, 24(11): 1106-1112

[35] Golightly J-P. Nickeliferous laterite deposits. Economic geology 75th anniversary. Econ Geol, 1981, 75: 710-735

[36] Golyshina O-V, Pivovarova T-A, Karavaiko G-I, Kondrat- T-F, Moore E-R-B, Abraham W-R, Lundsorf H, Timmis K-N, Yakimov M-M, Golyshin P-N. Ferroplasma acidiphilum gen. nov., sp. nov., an acidophilic, autotrophic, ferrous-iron oxidizing, cell wall-lacking, mesophilic member of the Ferroplasmaceae fam. nov., comprising a distinct lineage of the archaea. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2000, 50: 997-1006

[37] Golyshina O-V, Lünsdorf H, Kublanov Goldenstein N-I, Hinrichs K-U, Golyshin P-N. The novel extremely acidophilic, cell-walldeficient archaeon Cuniculiplasma divulgatum gen. nov., sp. nov. Represents a new family, Cuniculiplasmataceae fam. nov., of the order thermoplasmatales. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2016, 66: 332-340

[38] Gomez C, Blazquez M-L, Ballester A. Bioleaching of a Spanish complex sulphide ore-bulk concentrate. Miner Eng, 1999, 12(1): 93-106

[39] Hallberg KB, Johnson DB. Novel acidophiles isolated from moderately acidic mine drainage waters. Hydrometallurgy, 2003, 71: 139-148

[40] Hallberg K-B, Hedrich S, Johnson D-B. Acidiferrobacter thiooxydans, gen. nov. sp. nov.; an acidophilic, thermo-tolerant, facultatively anaerobic iron- and sulfur-oxidizer of the family Ectothiorhodospiraceae. Extremophiles, 2011, 15: 271-279

[41] Harrison STL, Sissing A. Thermophile mineral bioleaching performance: a compromise between maximising mineral loading and maximising microbial growth and activity. SAIMM J, 2003, 103(1–4): 139-142

[42] Hippe H. Leptospirillum gen. nov. (Ex Markosyan (1972), nom. rev., including Leptospirillum ferrooxidans sp. nov. (Ex Markosyan 1972), nom. rev, and Leptospirillum thermoferrooxidans sp. nov. (Golovacheva et al. (1992). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2000, 50: 501-503

[43] Ikumapayi F, Makitalo M, Johansson B, Rao KH. Recycling process water in sulfide flotation. Part A: effect of calcium and sulfate on sphalerite recovery. Miner Metall Process, 2012, 29(4): 183-191

[44] Imamura H, Nhat K-P-H, Togawa H, Saito K, Iino R, Kato Y, Nagai T, Noji H. Visualization of ATP levels inside single living cells with fluorescence resonance energy transfer based genetically encoded indicators. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2009, 106: 15651-15656

[45] Jennings P-H, Mcandrew R-T, Stratigakos E-S (1968) A hydrometallurgical method for recovering selenium and tellurium from copper refinery slimes TMS paper selection, A 68-9

[46] Johnson DB, Hallberg K-B. Acid mine drainage remediation options: a review. Sci Total Environ, 2005, 338(1–2): 3-14

[47] Johnson DB, Hallberg KB (2009) Carbon, iron and sulfur metabolism in acidophilic microorganisms. In: Poole RK (ed) Principles of the magnetic methods in Geophysics. Academic Press, pp 201–255

[48] Johnson D-B, Okibe N, Wakeman K, Liu Y. Effect of temperature on the bioleaching of chalcopyrite concentrates containing different concentrations of Silver. Hydrometallurgy, 2008, 94(1–4): 42-47

[49] Johnson S-S, Chevrette M-G, Ehlmann B-L, Benison K-C. Insights from the metagenome of an acid Salt Lake: the role of biology in an extreme depositional environment. PLoS ONE, 2015, 10(4): 1-19

[50] Kamimura K, Sharmin S, Yoshino E, Tokuhisa M, Kanao T. Draft genome sequence of Acidithiobacillus sp. strain SH, a marine acidophilic sulphur-oxidizing bacterium. Microbiol Resour Announc, 2018, 6(6): 1-2

[51] Kampunzu A-B Geochemical characterisation, provenance, source and depositional environment of ‘Roches Argilotalqueuses’ (RAT) and Mines Subgroups sedimentary rocks in the Neoproterozoic Katangan Belt (Congo): lithostratigraphic implications. J Afr Earth Sc, 2005, 42(1–5): 119-133

[52] Kampunzu A-B, Jourdan F, Bertrand H, Schaerer U, Blichert-Toft J, Feraud G. Major and trace element and Sr, Nd, Hf, and Pb isotope compositions of the Karoo large igneous province, Botswana-Zimbabwe: lithosphere vs. mantle plume contribution. J Petrol, 2007, 48: 1043-1077

[53] Kefeni K-K, Msagati T-M, Mamba B-B. Acid mine drainage: prevention, treatment options, and resource recovery: a review. J Clean Prod, 2017, 151: 475-493

[54] Kelly D-P, Wood A-P. Reclassification of some species of Thiobacillus to the newly designated genera Acidithiobacillus gen.nov., Halothiobacillus gen. nov and Thermithiobacillus gen. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2000, 50: 511-516

[55] Kelly DP, Wood AP. Reclassification of some species of Thiobacillus to the newly designated genera of Acidithiobacillus gen. nov., Halothiobacillus gen. nov. and Thermithiobacillus gen. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2000, 50: 511-516

[56] Kitobo W-S, Gaydardzhiev S, Frenay J, Ndala I (2009). Valorization and depollution of the rejections of Ancient Concentrator of Kipushi to Katanga in D.R. Congo. PhD Thesis, University of liege, Belgium

[57] Kock D, Schippers A. Geomicrobiological investigation of two different mine waste tailings generating acid mine drainage. Hydrometallurgy, 2006, 83(1–4): 167-175

[58] Kock D, Schippers A. Quantitative microbial community analysis of three different sulfidic mine tailing dumps generating acid mine drainage. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2008, 74(16): 5211-5219

[59] Kongolo K, Mwema MD, Banza AN, Gock E. Cobalt and zinc recovery from copper sulphate solution by solvent extraction. Miner Eng, 2003, 16(12): 1371-1374

[60] König H. Archaebacterial cell envelopes. Can J Microbiol, 1988, 34: 395-406

[61] Kordosky G (2007) The copperbelt Africa—a renaissance in copper hydrometallurgy. In: IV, international copper hydrometallurgy workshop (Hydrocopper, 2007), 16–18 May, Vina del Mar, Chile, pp 1–54

[62] Küsel K-T, Dorsch G, Acker Stackebrandt E. Microbial reduction of Fe(III) in acidic sediments: isolation of Acidiphilium cryptum JF-5 capable of coupling the reduction of Fe(III) to the oxidation of glucose. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1999, 65: 3633-3640

[63] Liu Y-G, Zhou M, Zeng G-M, Li X, Xu W-H, Fan T. Effect of solids concentration on removal of heavy metals from mine tailings via bioleaching. J Hazard Mater, 2006, 141(1): 202-208

[64] Lizama H-M, Suzuki I. Bacterial leaching of a sulphide ore by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and Thiobacillus thiooxidans part II: column leaching studies. Hydrometallurgy, 1989, 22(3): 301-310

[65] Loi G, Trois P, Rossi G. Vargas T, Jerez CA, Wiertz JV, Toledo H. Biorotor^®: a new development for biohydrometallurgical processing, vol 1. Biohydrometallurgical processing, 1995 Santiago University of Chile 263-271

[66] Loi G, Rossi G, Trois P (2006) “Reattore a tamburo rotante per idrometallurgia, bioidrometallurgia e trattamento delle acque di rifiuto per esercizio continuo” (Revolving barrel reactor for continuous operation for hydrometallurgy, biohydrometallurgy and water treatment), Italian Patent No. 0001329859; November 21

[67] Martani F, Berterame N-M, Branduardi P. Microbial stress: from molecules to systems. New Biotechnol, 2017, 35: 30-34

[68] Mehrabani J-V, Shafaei S-Z, Noaparast M, Mousavi S-M. Bioleaching of a low grade sphalerite concentrate produced from tailings flotation. Int J Min Geo-Eng, 2016, 50(2): 169-173

[69] Monroy MG (1993) Bioleaching—refractory gold bearing sulphide ore cyanidation in devices of percolation: Behavior of the populations of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and influence on mineralogy and operating conditions. University of Nancy 1, France

[70] Moreira D, Amils R. Phylogeny of Thiobacillus cuprinus and other mixotrophic thiobacilli: proposal for Thiomonas gen. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol, 1997, 47(2): 522-528

[71] Morin D, Lips A, Pinches T, Huisman J, Frias C, Norberg A, Forssberg E. BioMinE – Integrated project for the development of biotechnology for metal-bearing materials in Europe. Hydrometallurgy, 2006, 83: 69-76

[72] Mulaba-Bafubiandi A-F, Bell DT (2005) Some aspects of laboratory flotation of Co–Cu minerals from mixed oxide ores. In: Third Southern African conference on base metals, south african institute of mining and metallurgy, vol 3, pp 191–199

[73] Nkulu N-G, Gaydardzhiev S, Mutamba M-E. Bioleaching of the carrolite—applications at sulphide ores polymetallic of the Cupriferous Arc of Katanga in Republic Democratic of Congo (DRC), 2012 Belgium University of Liege

[74] Nkulu G, Gaydardzhiev S, Mwema E. Statistical analysis of bioleaching copper, cobalt and nickel from polymetalic concentrate originating from Kamoya deposit in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Miner Eng, 2013, 48(1): 77-85

[75] Nordbrand S, Bolme P. Powering the mobile world: cobalt production for batteries in the DR Congo and Zambia, Report by Swed Watch as part of “Ma keITfair Campaign”: European-wide project on consumer electronics, with the financial assistance of the EU. SwedWatch, 2007, 3: 1-79

[76] Oguz H, Brehm A, Deckwer W-D. Gas/liquid mass transfer in sparged agitated slurries. Chem Eng Sci, 1987, 42(7): 1815-1822

[77] Parker H (2016) Kamoa-Kakula project – Kakula 2016 Preliminary Economic Assessment. Internal report from Orewin IMC to Ivanhoe Mines, Janvier 2017

[78] Pinches A, Chapman J-T, Riele T, Van Staden M (1988) The performance of bacterial leach reactors for the pre-oxidation of refractory gold bearing sulphide concentrates. In: Norris PR, Kelly DP (eds) Bio-hydrometallurgical proceedings, Science and Technology Letters. International Symposium Warwick 329-44, Kew, Survey

[79] Plamen G, Marina N, Irena S, Lazarova A, Groudev S. Leaching of valuable metals from copper slag by means of chemolithotrophic archaea and bacteria. J Min Geol Sci, 2017, 60(2): 127-130

[80] Rawlings D-E. Characteristics and adaptability of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms used for the recovery of metals from minerals and their concentrates. Microbial Cell Factories, 2005, 4: 3-33

[81] Rawlings D-E, Dew D, Du Plessis C. Bio-mineralization of metal-containing ores and concentrates. Trends Biotechnol, 2003, 21: 38-44

[82] Rea SM, McSweeney NJ, Degens BP, Morris C, Siebert HM, Kaksonen AH. Salt-tolerant microorganisms potentially useful for bioleaching operations where fresh water is scarce. Miner Eng, 2015, 75: 126-132

[83] Robb L. Copper bottomed: understanding the Central African Copperbelt. Mater World, 2005, 1: 24-26

[84] Robb L. Recent advances in the geology and mineralization of the Central African Copperbelt. J Afr Earth Sc, 2005, 42(1–5): 1-214

[85] Ross TJ (2011) Fuzzy logic with engineering applications, 3rd edn. Wiley, pp 100–116. ISBN: 97 8-0-470-74376-8

[86] Ruan R, Zhou E, Liu X, Wu B, Zhou G, Wen J. Comparison on the leaching kinetics of chalcopyrite and pyrite with or without bacteria. Rare Met, 2010, 29(6): 552-556

[87] Sabrina M, Mauricio A, Pedro G, Clement C, Hannes S, Cecilia D. Is the growth of microorganisms limited by carbon availability during chalcopyrite bioleaching?. Hydrometallurgy, 2017, 168: 13-20

[88] Sampson M-I, Phillips C-V, Blake R-C. Influence of the attachment of acidophilic bacteria during the oxidation of mineral sulphides. Miner Eng, 2000, 13: 373-389

[89] Santos L-G, Barbosa A-F, Souza A-D, Lea V-A. Bioleaching of a complex nickel–iron concentrate by mesophilic bacteria. Miner Eng, 2006, 19: 1251-1258

[90] Sasaki K, Nakamuta Y, Hirajima T, Tuovinen O-H. Raman characterization of secondary minerals formed during chalcopyrite leaching with Acidithiobacillus Ferrooxidans. Hydrometallurgy, 2009, 95(1–2): 153-158

[91] Schippers Axel. Biogeochemistry of metal sulfide oxidation in mining environments, sediments, and soils. Sulfur Biogeochemistry - Past and Present, 2004

[92] Schippers A, Sand W. Bacterial leaching of metal sulphide proceeds by two indirect mechanisms via thiosulfate or via polysulfides and sulphur. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1999, 65(1): 310-321

[93] Schloen J-H, Elkin E-M. Butts A. The treatment of electrolytic copper refinery slimes. Copper: the science and technology of the metal, its alloys and compounds, 1954 New York Reinhold 205-289

[94] Schmandt D., Broughton D., Hitzman M. W., Plink-Bjorklund P., Edwards D., Humphrey J.. The Kamoa Copper Deposit, Democratic Republic of Congo: Stratigraphy, Diagenetic and Hydrothermal Alteration, and Mineralization. Economic Geology, 2013, 108(6): 1301-1324

[95] Scholtz N-J, Pandit A-B, Harrison S-T-L (1997) Effect of solids suspension on microbial cell disruption. In: Nienow A (ed) Bioreactor and bioprocess fluid dynamics, pp 199–215

[96] Shaligram N-S, Bule M, Bhambure R, Sudheer S, Sing K, Szkacs G, Pandey A. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract from the compact in producing fungal strain. Process Biochem, 2009, 44(8): 939-943

[97] Shiers D-W, Collinson D-M, Watling H-R. Life in heaps: a review of microbial responses to variable acidity in sulfide mineral bioleaching heaps for metal extraction. Res Microbiol, 2016, 167(7): 576-586

[98] Spolaore P, Joulian C, Gouin J, Morin D, d’Hugues P. Relationship between bioleaching performance, bacterial community structure and mineralogy in the bioleaching of a copper concentrate in stirred-tank reactors. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2011, 89(2): 441-448

[99] Third K-A, Cord-Ruwisch R, Watling H-R. The role of iron-oxidizing bacteria in stimulation or inhibition of chalcopyrite bioleaching. Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 57(3): 225-233

[100] Torma A-E, Walden C-C, Duncan D-W, Branion R-M-R. The effect of carbon dioxide and particle surface area on the microbiological leaching of a zinc sulphide concentrate. Biotechnol Bioeng, 1972, 14(5): 777-786

[101] Tsekova K, Kaimaktchiev A, Tzekova A. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals by microorganisms. Biotechnol Equip, 1998, 12: 94-96

[102] Uryga A, Sadowsky Z, Grotowski A. Bioleaching of cobalt from mineral products. Physicochem Probl Miner Process, 2004, 38: 291-299

[103] Vakylabad AB. A comparison of bioleaching ability of mesophilic and moderately thermophilic culture on copper bioleaching from flotation concentrate and smelter dust. Int J Miner Process, 2011, 101: 94-99

[104] Visagie C-M, Hirooka Y, Tanney J-B Aspergillus, Penicillium and Talaromyces isolated from house dust samples collected around the world. Study Mycol, 2014, 78: 63-139

[105] Wang Y, Su L, Zeng W, Qiu G, Wan L, Chen X, Zhou H. Optimization of copper extraction for bioleaching of complex Cu-polymetallic concentrate by moderate thermophiles. Trans Nonferr Met Soc China, 2014, 24(4): 1161-1170

[106] Watling H-R. The bioleaching of nickel-copper sulphides. Hydrometallurgy, 2008, 91(1–4): 70-88

[107] Watling HR, Collinson D-M, Li J, Mutch L-A, Perrot F-A, Rea S-M, Reith F, Watkin E-L-J. Bioleaching of a low-grade copper ore, linking leach chemistry and microbiology. Miner Eng, 2014, 56: 35-44

[108] Xia L-X, Dai S-L, Yin C, Liu J-S, Hu Y, Qiu G-Z. Comparison of bioleaching behaviors of different compositional sphalerite using Leptospirillum ferriphilum, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus caldus. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol, 2009, 36(6): 845-852

[109] Xue L, Jian K, Wen B, Biao W, Shuang L. Magnesium rich gangue dissolution in column bioleaching of chalcopyrite. Rare Metals, 2015, 34(5): 366-370

[110] Yahya A, Johnson D-B. Bioleaching of pyrite at low pH and low redox potentials by novel mesophilic Gram-positive bacteria. Hydrometallurgy, 2002, 63(2): 181-188

[111] Yang CR, Qin WQ, Lai SS. Bioleaching of a low grade nickel–copper–cobalt sulfide ore. Hydrometallurgy, 2011, 106(1–2): 32-34

[112] Yin Shenghua, Wang Leiming, Kabwe Eugie, Chen Xun, Yan Rongfu, An Kai, Zhang Lei, Aixiang Wu. Copper Bioleaching in China: review and prospect. Minerals, 2018, 8(32): 2-26