Interaction of electromagnetic fields with body-onboard devices

Abstract

The aim of this contribution is to analyze and discuss the perturbations of body-onboard medical devices caused by electromagnetic field radiations. This involves their control via electromagnetic compatibility analysis and their protection against such perturbations. The wearable, detachable, and embedded devices are first presented and their monitoring, control, forecasting, and stimulating functions are detailed. The interaction of these devices with field exposures comprising their wireless routines is then analyzed. The perturbations control of onboard devices is investigated through the mathematical solution of governing electromagnetic field equations and their appropriate protection strategies are deliberated. The involved investigations and analyses in the contribution are supported by a literature review.

Keywords

Body-onboard devices / electromagnetic fields / electromagnetic compatibility analysis / functional perturbations / shielding

References

[1] Petroulakis N, Mattsson MO, Chatziadam P, Simko M, Gavrielides A, Yiorkas AM, et al. NextGEM: Next-Generation Integrated Sensing and Analytical System for Monitoring and Assessing Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure and Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023; 20:6085.

[2] Henschenmacher B, Bitsch A, de Las Heras Gala T, Forman HJ, Fragoulis A, Ghezzi P, et al. The effect of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) on biomarkers of oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro: A protocol for a systematic review. Environ Int. 2022; 158:106932.

[3] Cirimele V, Freschi F, Giaccone L, Pichon L, Repetto M. Human Exposure Assessment in Dynamic Inductive Power Transfer for Automotive Applications. IEEE Trans Magn. 2017; 53:1-4.

[4] Lagorio S, Blettner M, Baaken D, Feychting M, Karipidis K, Loney T, et al. The effect of exposure to radiofrequency fields on cancer risk in the general and working population: A protocol for a systematic review of human observational studies. Environ Int. 2021; 157:106828.

[5] Hinrikus H, Koppel T, Lass J, Orru H, Roosipuu P, Bachmann M. Possible health effects on the human brain by various generations of mobile telecommunication: a review based estimation of 5G impact. Int J Radiat Biol. 2022; 98:1210-21.

[6] Pophof B, Burns J, Danker-Hopfe H, Dorn H, Egblomassé-Roidl C, Eggert T, et al. The effect of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on cognitive performance in human experimental studies: A protocol for a systematic review. Environ Int. 2021; 157:106783.

[7] Batool S, Bibi A, Frezza F, Mangini F. Benefits and hazards of electromagnetic waves, telecommunication, physical and biomedical: a review. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2019; 23:3121-8.

[8] Chikha WB, Zhang Y, Liu J, Wang S, Sandeep S, Guxens M, et al. Assessment of Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure Induced by Base Stations in Several Micro-Environments in France. IEEE Access. 2024; 12:21610-20.

[9] Sivani S, Sudarsanam D. Impacts of radio-frequency electromagneticfield (RF-EMF) from cell phone towers and wireless devices on biosystem and ecosystem - a review. Biol Med. 2012; 4:202-16.

[10] Razek A. Biological and Medical Disturbances Due to Exposure to Fields Emitted by Electromagnetic Energy Devices-A Review. Energies. 2022; 15:4455.

[11] Ozel HB, Cetin M, Sevik H, Varol T, Isik B, Yaman B. The effects of base station as an electromagnetic radiation source on flower and cone yield and germination percentage inPinus brutia Ten. Biol Futur. 2021; 72:359-65.

[12] Khan MD, Ali S, Azizullah A, Shuijin Z. Use of various biomarkers to explore the effects of GSM and GSM-like radiations on flowering plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2018; 25:24611-28.

[13] Tran NT, Jokic L, Keller J, Geier JU, Kaldenhoff R. Impacts of Radio-Frequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) on Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)-Evidence for RF-EMF Interference with Plant Stress Responses. Plants (Basel). 2023; 12:1082.

[14] Pawełe A, Owusu SA, Cecchetti D, Zielińska A, Wyszkowska J. What evidence exists of crop plants response to exposure to static magnetic and electromagnetic fields? A systematic map protocol. Environ Evid. 2022; 11:37.

[15] Ayesha S, Abideen Z, Haider G, Zulfiqar F, El-Keblawy A, Rasheed A, et al. Enhancing sustainable plant production and food security: Understanding the mechanisms and impacts of electromagnetic fields. Plant Stress. 2023; 9:100198.

[16] Razek A. Thermal effects of electromagnetic origin from heating processes to biological disturbances due to field exposure-A review. Therm Sci Eng. 2023; 6:1950.

[17] Guk K, Han G, Lim J, Jeong K, Kang T, Lim EK, et al. Evolution of Wearable Devices with Real-Time Disease Monitoring for Personalized Healthcare. Nanomaterials. 2019; 9:813.

[18] Xin Y, Liu T, Sun H, Xu Y, Zhu J, Qian C, et al. Recent progress on the wearable devices based on piezoelectric sensors. Ferroelectrics. 2018; 531:102-13.

[19] Yetisen AK, Martinez-Hurtado JL, Ünal B, Khademhosseini A, Butt H. Wearables in Medicine. Adv Mater. 2018; 30:e1706910.

[20] Chakrabarti S, Biswas N, Jones LD, Kesari S, Ashili S. Smart Consumer Wearables as Digital Diagnostic Tools: A Review. Diagnostics (Basel). 2022; 12:2110.

[21] Escobar-Linero E, Muñoz-Saavedra L, Luna-Perejón F, Sevillano JL, Domínguez-Morales M. Wearable Health Devices for Diagnosis Support: Evolution and Future Tendencies. Sensors. 2023; 23:1678.

[22] Devi DH, Duraisamy K, Armghan A, Alsharari M, Aliqab K, Sorathiya V, et al. 5G Technology in Healthcare and Wearable Devices: A Review. Sensors. 2023; 23:2519.

[23] Pantelopoulos A, Bourbakis NG. A Survey on Wearable Sensor-Based Systems for Health Monitoring and Prognosis. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern C. 2010; 40:1-12.

[24] Chan M, Estève D, Fourniols JY, Escriba C, Campo E. Smart wearable systems: current status and future challenges. Artif Intell Med. 2012; 56:137- 56.

[25] Kim J, Campbell AS, de Ávila BE, Wang J. Wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring. Nat Biotechnol. 2019; 37:389-406.

[26] Traverson M, Heiden M, Stanciu LA, Nauman EA, Jones-Hall Y, Breur GJ. In Vivo Evaluation of Biodegradability and Biocompatibility of Fe30Mn Alloy. Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol. 2018; 31:10-6.

[27] Wang Y, Venezuela J, Dargusch M. Biodegradable shape memory alloys: Progress and prospects. Biomaterials. 2021; 279:121215.

[28] Li H, Lin G, Wang P, Huang J, Wen C. Nutrient alloying elements in biodegradable metals: a review. J Mater Chem B. 2021; 9:9806-25.

[29] Rabeeh VPM, Hanas T. Progress in manufacturing and processing of degradable Fe-based implants: a review. Prog Biomater. 2022; 11:163-91.

[30] Babacan N, Kochta F, Hoffmann V, Gemming T, Kühn U, Giebeler L, et al. Effect of silver additions on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Fe-30Mn-6Si. Mater Today Commun. 2021; 28:102689.

[31] Tai CC, Lo HL, Liaw CK, Huang YM, Huang YH, Yang KY, et al. Biocompatibility and Biological Performance Evaluation of Additive-Manufactured Bioabsorbable Iron-Based Porous Suture Anchor in a Rabbit Model. Int J Mol Sci. 2021; 22:7368.

[32] Bakhsheshi-Rad HR, Najafinezhad A, Hadisi Z, Iqbal N, Daroonparvar M, Sharif S, et al. Characterization and biological properties of nanostructured clinoenstatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications. Mater Chem Phys. 2021; 259:123969.

[33] Sun Y, Chen L, Liu N, Wang H, Liang C. Laser-modified Fe-30Mn surfaces with promoted biodegradability and biocompatibility toward biological applications. J Mater Sci. 2021; 56:13772-84.

[34] Saliba L, Sammut K, Tonna C, Pavli F, Valdramidis V, Gatt R, et al. FeMn and FeMnAg biodegradable alloys: An in vitro and in vivo investigation. Heliyon. 2023; 9:e15671.

[35] Hao S, Yang T, Zhang A, Wang P, Jiang H, Shen D, et al. Evaluation of Biodegradable Alloy Fe30Mn0.6N in Rabbit Femur and Cartilage through Detecting Osteogenesis and Autophagy. BioMed Res Int. 2023; 2023:3626776.

[36] Biffi CA, Fiocchi J, Bregoli C, Gambaro S, Copes F, Mantovani D, et al. Ultrashort Laser Texturing for Tuning Surface Morphology and Degradation Behavior of the Biodegradable Fe-20Mn Alloy for Temporary Implants. Adv Eng Mater. 2022; 24:2101496.

[37] Putra NE, Leeflang MA, Taheri P, Fratila-Apachitei LE, Mol JMC, Zhou J, et al. Extrusion-based 3D printing of ex situ-alloyed highly biodegradable MRI-friendly porous iron-manganese scaffolds. Acta Biomater. 2021; 134:774-90.

[38] Soliman MM, Chowdhury MEH, Khandakar A, Islam MT, Qiblawey Y, Musharavati F, et al. Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges. Sensors. 2021; 21:3163.

[39] Gupta A, Kumar V, Bansal S, Alsharif MH, Jahid A, Cho HS. A Miniaturized Tri-Band Implantable Antenna for ISM/WMTS/Lower UWB/Wi-Fi Frequencies. Sensors. 2023; 23:6989.

[40] Chowdhury MEH, Khandakar A, Alzoubi K, Mansoor S, M Tahir A, Reaz MBI, et al. Real-Time Smart-Digital Stethoscope System for Heart Diseases Monitoring. Sensors. 2019; 19:2781.

[41] Moon KS, Lee SQ. A Wearable Multimodal Wireless Sensing System for Respiratory Monitoring and Analysis. Sensors. 2023; 23:6790.

[42] Khan Mamun MMR, Sherif A. Advancement in the Cuffless and Noninvasive Measurement of Blood Pressure: A Review of the Literature and Open Challenges. Bioengineering. 2022; 10:27.

[43] Bhuva AN, Moralee R, Brunker T, Lascelles K, Cash L, Patel KP, et al. Evidence to support magnetic resonance conditional labelling of all pacemaker and defibrillator leads in patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices. Eur Heart J. 2022; 43:2469-78.

[44] Joo H, Lee Y, Kim J, Yoo JS, Yoo S, Kim S, et al. Soft Implantable Drug Delivery Device Integrated Wirelessly with Wearable Devices to Treat Fatal Seizures. Sci Adv. 2021; 7:eabd4639.

[45] Cheng Y, Xie D, Han Y, Guo S, Sun Z, Jing L, et al. Precise management system for chronic intractable pain patients implanted with spinal cord stimulation based on a remote programming platform: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (PreMaSy study). Trials. 2023; 24:580.

[46] Thotahewa KM, Redouté JM, Yuce MR. Electromagnetic and thermal effects of IR-UWB wireless implant systems on the human head. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2013; 2013:5179-82.

[47] Corbett GD, Buttery PC, Pugh PJ, Cameron EAB. Endoscopy and implantable electronic devices. Frontline Gastroenterol. 2012; 3:72-5.

[48] Khan Y, Ostfeld AE, Lochner CM, Pierre A, Arias AC. Monitoring of Vital Signs with Flexible and Wearable Medical Devices. Adv Mater. 2016; 28:4373-95.

[49] Patel S, Park H, Bonato P, Chan L, Rodgers M. A review of wearable sensors and systems with application in rehabilitation. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2012; 9:21.

[50] Hurley NC, Spatz ES, Krumholz HM, Jafari R, Mortazavi BJ. A Survey of Challenges and Opportunities in Sensing and Analytics for Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Disorders. ACM Trans Comput Healthc. 2021; 2:9.

[51] Talal M, Zaidan AA, Zaidan BB, Albahri AS, Alamoodi AH, Albahri OS, et al. Smart Home-based IoT for Real-time and Secure Remote Health Monitoring of Triage and Priority System using Body Sensors: Multi-driven Systematic Review. J Med Syst. 2019; 43:42.

[52] Patel V, Orchanian-Cheff A, Wu R. Evaluating the Validity and Utility of Wearable Technology for Continuously Monitoring Patients in a Hospital Setting: Systematic Review. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2021; 9:e17411.

[53] Osama M, Ateya AA, Sayed MS, Hammad M, Pławiak P, Abd El-Latif AA, et al. Internet of Medical Things and Healthcare 4.0: Trends, Requirements, Challenges, and Research Directions. Sensors. 2023; 23:7435.

[54] Mukherjee S, Suleman S, Pilloton R, Narang J, Rani K. State of the Art in Smart Portable, Wearable, Ingestible and Implantable Devices for Health Status Monitoring and Disease Management. Sensors. 2022; 22:4228.

[55] Park YG, Lee S, Park JU. Recent Progress in Wireless Sensors for Wearable Electronics. Sensors. 2019; 19:4353.

[56] Batista E, Moncusi MA, López-Aguilar P, Martínez-Ballesté A, Solanas A. Sensors for Context-Aware Smart Healthcare: A Security Perspective. Sensors. 2021; 21:6886.

[57] Zhang J, Gai M, Ignatov AV, Dyakov SA, Wang J, Gippius NA, et al. Stimuli-Responsive Microarray Films for Real-Time Sensing of Surrounding Media, Temperature, and Solution Properties via Diffraction Patterns. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020; 12:19080-91.

[58] IEC/TS 61000-1-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 1-2: General - Methodology for the achievement of functional safety of electrical and electronic systems including equipment with regard to electromagnetic phenomena [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: IEC; [cited2016 Apr 1]. Available from:https://standards.globalspec.com/std/10004989/iec-61000-1-2

[59] CISPR 16-1-1:2019, Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods - Part 1-1: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus - Measuring apparatus [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: CISPR; [cited2019 May 22]. Available from:https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/60774

[60] Sabath F. A systematic approach for electromagnetic interference risk management. IEEE Electromagn Compat Mag. 2017; 6:99-106.

[61] Jang J, Paonni M, Eissfeller B. CW Interference Effects on Tracking Performance of GNSS Receivers. IEEE Trans Aerosp Electron Syst. 2012; 48:243-58.

[62] Su D, Xie S, Chen A, Shang X, Zhu K, Xu H. Basic Emission Waveform Theory: A Novel Interpretation and Source Identification Method for Electromagnetic Emission of Complex Systems. IEEE Trans Electromagn Compat. 2018; 60:1330-9.

[63] Hoijer M. Including Directivity in Reverberation Chamber Radiated Susceptibility Testing. IEEE Trans Electromagn Compat. 2011; 53:283-7.

[64] Spadacini G, Grassi F, Pignari SA, Bisognin P, Piche A. Bulk Current Injection as an Alternative Radiated Susceptibility Test Enforcing a Statistically Quantified Overtesting Margin. IEEE Trans Electromagn Compat. 2018; 60:1270-8.

[65] Cai S, Li Y, Zhu H, Wu X, Su D. A Novel Electromagnetic Compatibility Evaluation Method for Receivers Working under Pulsed Signal Interference Environment. Appl Sci. 2021; 11:9454.

[66] Leferink F, Van der Ven JK, Bergsma H, Van Leersum B. Risk based EMC for complex systems. URSI GASS. 2017:1-4.

[67] Khairi R, Razek A, Bernard L, Corcolle R, Bernard Y, Pichon L, et al. EMC analysis of MRI environment in view of Optimized performance and cost of image guided interventions. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech. 2016; 51:S67-74.

[68] Razek A. Towards an image-guided restricted drug release in friendly implanted therapeutics. Eur Phys J Appl Phys. 2018; 82:31401.

[69] Razek A. Assessment of Supervised Drug Release in Cordial Embedded Therapeutics. Athens J Technol Eng. 2019; 6:77-90.

[70] Razek A. Assessment of EMF Troubles of Biological and Instrumental Medical Questions and Analysis of Their Compliance with Standards. Standards. 2023; 3:227-39.

[71] Maxwell JC. VIII. A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. Philos Trans Roy Soc. 1865; 155:459-512.

[72] Nunes AS, Dular P, Chadebec O, Kuo-Peng P. Subproblems Applied to a 3-D Magnetostatic Facet FEM Formulation. IEEE Trans Magn. 2018; 54:1-9.

[73] Li G, Ojeda J, Hoang E, Gabsi M, Lecrivain M. Thermal-Electromagnetic Analysis for Driving Cycles of Embedded Flux-Switching Permanent-Magnet Motors. IEEE Trans Veh Technol. 2012; 61:140-51.

[74] Piriou F, Razek A. Numerical simulation of a nonconventional alternator connected to a rectifier. IEEE Trans Energy Convers. 1990; 5:512-8.

[75] Bernard L. Electrical characterization of biological tissues and computing of phenomena induced in the human body by electromagnetic fields below 1 GHz [dissertation].Ecole Centrale de Lyon; Universidade federal de Minas Gerais; 2007.

[76] Ren Z, Razek A. A coupled electromagnetic-mechanical model for thin conductive plate deflection analysis. IEEE Trans Magn. 1990; 26:1650-2.

[77] Freschi F, Giaccone L, Cirimele V, Canova A. Numerical assessment of low-frequency dosimetry from sampled magnetic fields. Phys Med Biol. 2017; 63:015029.

[78] Li C, Ren Z, Razek A. An approach to adaptive mesh refinement for three-dimensional eddy-current computations. IEEE Trans Magn. 1994; 30:113-7.

[79] Piriou F, Razek A. Calculation of saturated inductances for numerical simulation of synchronous machines. IEEE Trans Magn. 1983; 19:2628-31.

[80] Razek A. Assessment of a Functional Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis of Near-Body Medical Devices Subject to Electromagnetic Field Perturbation. Electronics. 2023; 12:4780.

[81] Yang Y, Zeng S, Li X, Hu Z, Zheng J. Ultrahigh and Tunable Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Performance of PVDF Composite Induced by Nano-Micro Cellular Structure. Polymers. 2022; 14:234.

[82] Wang G, Wang L, Mark LH, Shaayegan V, Wang G, Li H, et al. Ultralow-Threshold and Lightweight Biodegradable Porous PLA/MWCNT with Segregated Conductive Networks for High-Performance Thermal Insulation and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018; 10:1195-203.

[83] Yao B, Hong W, Chen T, Han Z, Xu X, Hu R, et al. Highly Stretchable Polymer Composite with Strain-Enhanced Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Effectiveness. Adv Mater. 2020; 32:e1907499.

[84] Yun T, Kim H, Iqbal A, Cho YS, Lee GS, Kim MK, et al. Electromagnetic Shielding of Monolayer MXene Assemblies. Adv Mater. 2020; 32:e1906769.

[85] Song WL, Cao MS, Lu MM, Bi S, Wang CY, Liu J, et al. Flexible graphene/polymer composite films in sandwich structures for effective electromagnetic interference shielding. Carbon. 2014; 66:67-76.

[86] Song WL, Guan XT, Fan LZ, Cao WQ, Wang CY, Cao MS. Tuning three-dimensional textures with graphene aerogels for ultra-light flexible graphene/texture composites of effective electromagnetic shielding. Carbon. 2015; 93:151-60.

[87] Tan YJ, Li J, Gao Y, Li J, Guo S, Wang M. A facile approach to fabricating silver-coated cotton fiber non-woven fabrics for ultrahigh electromagnetic interference shielding. Appl Surf Sci. 2018; 458:236-44.

[88] Han M, Yin X, Hantanasirisakul K, Li X, Iqbal A, Hatter CB, et al. Anisotropic MXene aerogels with a mechanically tunable ratio of electromagnetic wave reflection to absorption. Adv Opt Mater. 2019; 7:1900267.

[89] Cheng J, Li C, Xiong Y, Zhang H, Raza H, Ullah S, et al. Recent Advances in Design Strategies and Multifunctionality of Flexible Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Materials. Nanomicro Lett. 2022; 14:80.

[90] Mohammad M, Wodajo ET, Choi S, Elbuluk ME. Modeling and Design of Passive Shield to Limit EMF Emission and to Minimize Shield Loss in Unipolar Wireless Charging System for EV. IEEE Trans Power Electron. 2019; 34:12235-45.

[91] Canova A, Corti F, Laudani A, Lozito GM, Quercio M. Innovative shielding technique for wireless power transfer systems. IET Power Electron. 2023:1-8.

[92] Fan Z, Lu L, Sang M, Wu J, Wang X, Xu F, et al. Wearable Safeguarding Leather Composite with Excellent Sensing, Thermal Management, and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding. Adv Sci. 2023; 10:e2302412.

[93] Ma Z, Deng Z, Zhou X, Li L, Jiao C, Ma H, et al. Multifunctional and magnetic MXene composite aerogels for electromagnetic interference shielding with low reflectivity. Carbon. 2023; 213:118260.

[94] Yun J, Zhou C, Guo B, Wang F, Zhou Y, Ma Z, et al. Mechanically strong and multifunctional nano-nickel aerogels based epoxy composites for ultra-high electromagnetic interference shielding and thermal management. J Mater Res Technol. 2023; 24:9644-56.

[95] Verma R, Thakur P, Chauhan A, Jasrotia R, Thakur A. A review on MXene and its’ composites for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding applications. Carbon. 2023; 208:170-90.

[96] Durdik M, Kosik P, Markova E, Somsedikova A, Gajdosechova B, Nikitina E, et al. Microwaves from mobile phone induce reactive oxygen species but not DNA damage, preleukemic fusion genes and apoptosis in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Sci Rep. 2019; 9:16182.