A carbon dot toolbox for managing biotic and abiotic stresses in crop production systems

Abstract

The productivity of global crop production is under threat caused by various biotic and abiotic adverse conditions, such as plant diseases and pests, which are responsible for 20%–40% of global crop losses estimated at a value of USD 220 billion, and can be further exacerbated by climate change. Agricultural industries are calling for game-changer technologies to enable productive and sustainable farming. Carbon dots (C-dots) are carbon-based nanoparticles, smaller than 50 nm, exhibiting unique opto-electro-properties. They have been shown to have positive impact on managing diverse biotic and abiotic stresses faced by the crops. Owing to their versatile carbon chemistry, the surface functionalities of C-dots can be readily tuned to regulate plant physiological processes. This review is focussed on establishing the correlations between the physiochemical properties of C-dots and their impacts on plants growth and health. The summary of the literature demonstrates that C-dots hold great promise in improving plant tolerance to heat, drought, toxic chemicals, and invading pathogens.

Keywords

abiotic stress / biotic stress / carbon dots / plant-nanomaterial interactions / plants

References

[1] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. 2016.

[2] Ray DK, Ramankutty N, Mueller ND, West PC, Foley JA. Recent patterns of crop yield growth and stagnation. Nat Commun. 2012;3(1):1293.

[3] Luo Z, Zhu J, Sun T, et al. Application of the IoT in the food supply chain─from the perspective of carbon mitigation. Environ Sci Technol. 2022;56(15):10567-10576.

[4] Chrysafi A, Virkki V, Jalava M, et al. Quantifying earth system interactions for sustainable food production via expert elicitation. Nat Sustain. 2022;5(10):830-842.

[5] USEPA. Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply. Climate Change Impacts. 2023. https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply

[6] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). New Standards to Curb the Global Spread of Plant Pests and Diseases. News. 2019. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/New-standards-to-curb-the-global-spread-of-plant-pests-and-diseases/en

[7] Song D, Jiang R, Fan D, et al. Evaluation of nitrogen fertilizer fates and related environmental risks for Main cereals in China's croplands from 2004 to 2018. Plan Theory. 2022;11(19):2507.

[8] An C, Sun C, Li N, et al. Nanomaterials and nanotechnology for the delivery of agrochemicals: strategies towards sustainable agriculture. J Nanobiotechnol. 2022;20(1):1-19.

[9] Mitter N, Worrall EA, Robinson KE, et al. Clay nanosheets for topical delivery of RNAi for sustained protection against plant viruses. Nat Plants. 2017;3(January):16207.

[10] Jain RG, Fletcher SJ, Manzie N, et al. Foliar application of clay-delivered RNA interference for whitefly control. Nat Plants. 2022;8(5):535-548.

[11] Beig B, Niazi MBK, Sher F, et al. Nanotechnology-based controlled release of sustainable fertilizers. A review. Environ Chem Lett. 2022;20(4):2709-2726.

[12] Bakhtiari M, Moaveni P, Sani B. The effect of iron nanoparticles spraying time and concentration on wheat. Biol Forum Int J. 2015;7(1):679-683.

[13] Jo YK, Kim BH, Jung G. Antifungal activity of silver ions and nanoparticles on phytopathogenic fungi. Plant Dis. 2009;93(10):1037-1043.

[14] Moradbeygi H, Jamei R, Heidari R, Darvishzadeh R. Fe2O3 nanoparticles induced biochemical responses and expression of genes involved in Rosmarinic acid biosynthesis pathway in Moldavian balm under salinity stress. Physiol Plant. 2020;169(4):555-570.

[15] Kaveh R, Li YS, Ranjbar S, Tehrani R, Brueck CL, Van Aken B. Changes in Arabidopsis Thaliana gene expression in response to silver nanoparticles and silver ions. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47(18):10637-10644.

[16] Safdar M, Kim W, Park S, Gwon Y, Kim Y-O, Kim J. Engineering plants with carbon nanotubes: a sustainable agriculture approach. J Nanobiotechnol. 2022;20(1):275.

[17] Chen Z, Zhao J, Cao J, et al. Opportunities for graphene, single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotube applications in agriculture: a review. Crop Des. 2022;1(1):100006.

[18] Andelkovic IB, Kabiri S, Tavakkoli E, Kirby JK, McLaughlin MJ, Losic D. Graphene oxide-Fe(III) composite containing phosphate – a novel slow release fertilizer for improved agriculture management. J Clean Prod. 2018;185:97-104.

[19] Salem KFM, Saleh MM, Abu-Ellail FFB, Abbas HS, Mahmoud AS. In: Faizan M, Hayat S, Yu F, eds. Role of Quantum Dots, Polymeric NPs and Dendrimers in Emphasizing Crops Tolerate Biotic and Abiotic Stresses BT - Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 53: Nanoparticles: A New Tool to Enhance Stress Tolerance. Springer International Publishing; 2021:1-31.

[20] Zhu L, Chen L, Gu J, Ma H, Wu H. Carbon-based nanomaterials for sustainable agriculture: their application as light converters, nanosensors, and delivery tools. Plants (Basel, Switzerland). 2022;11(4):511.

[21] Ðorđević L, Arcudi F, Cacioppo M, Prato M. A multifunctional chemical toolbox to engineer carbon dots for biomedical and energy applications. Nat Nanotechnol. 2022;17(2):112-130.

[22] Das A, Kundelev EV, Vedernikova AA, et al. Revealing the nature of optical activity in carbon dots produced from different chiral precursor molecules. Light Sci Appl. 2022;11(1):92.

[23] Sharma A, Gadly T, Neogy S, Ghosh SK, Kumbhakar M. Molecular origin and self-assembly of fluorescent carbon nanodots in polar solvents. J Phys Chem Lett. 2017;8(5):1044-1052.

[24] Ding H, Yu S-B, Wei J-S, Xiong H-M. Full-color light-emitting carbon dots with a surface-state-controlled luminescence mechanism. ACS Nano. 2016;10(1):484-491.

[25] Xu X, Ray R, Gu Y, et al. Electrophoretic analysis and purification of fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotube fragments. J Am Chem Soc. 2004;126(40):12736-12737.

[26] Sun Y-P, Zhou B, Lin Y, et al. Quantum-sized carbon dots for bright and colorful photoluminescence. J Am Chem Soc. 2006;128(24):7756-7757.

[27] Zhao Q, Song W, Zhao B, Yang B. Spectroscopic studies of the optical properties of carbon dots: recent advances and future prospects. Mater Chem Front. 2020;4(2):472-488.

[28] Liu R, Wu D, Liu S, Koynov K, Knoll W, Li Q. An aqueous route to multicolor photoluminescent carbon dots using silica spheres as carriers. Angew Chem Int ed. 2009;48(25):4598-4601.

[29] Wang B, Cai H, Waterhouse GIN, Qu X, Yang B, Lu S. Carbon dots in bioimaging, biosensing and therapeutics: a comprehensive review. Small Sci. 2022;2(6):2200012.

[30] Wu J, Chen G, Jia Y, et al. Carbon dot composites for bioapplications: a review. J Mater Chem B. 2022;10(6):843-869.

[31] Zeng Q, Shao D, He X, et al. Carbon dots as a trackable drug delivery carrier for localized cancer therapy in vivo. J Mater Chem B. 2016;4(30):5119-5126.

[32] Saini D, Garg AK, Dalal C, et al. Visible-light-promoted photocatalytic applications of carbon dots: a review. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2022;5(3):3087-3109.

[33] Wang S, Cole IS, Li Q. Quantum-confined bandgap narrowing of TiO2 nanoparticles by graphene quantum dots for visible-light-driven applications. Chem Commun. 2016;52(59):9208-9211.

[34] Wu H, Lu S, Yang B. Carbon-dot-enhanced electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Accounts Mater Res. 2022;3(3):319-330.

[35] Li M, Chen T, Gooding JJ, Liu J. Review of carbon and graphene quantum dots for sensing. ACS Sens. 2019;4(7):1732-1748.

[36] Wang W, Kim T, Yan Z, et al. Carbon dots functionalized by Organosilane with double-sided anchoring for nanomolar Hg2+ detection. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2015;437:28-34.

[37] Shao H-B, Chu L-Y, Jaleel CA, Zhao C-X. Water-deficit stress-induced anatomical changes in higher plants. C R Biol. 2008;331(3):215-225.

[38] Heil M, Bostock RM. Induced systemic resistance (ISR) against pathogens in the context of induced plant defences. Ann Bot. 2002;89(5):503-512.

[39] Zhao L, Lu L, Wang A, et al. Nano-biotechnology in agriculture: use of nanomaterials to promote plant growth and stress tolerance. J Agric Food Chem. 2020;68(7):1935-1947.

[40] Qu S, Wang X, Lu Q, Liu X, Wang L. A biocompatible fluorescent ink based on water-soluble luminescent carbon nanodots. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2012;51(49):12215-12218.

[41] Li W, Zheng Y, Zhang H, et al. Phytotoxicity, uptake, and translocation of fluorescent carbon dots in mung bean plants. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016;8(31):19939-19945.

[42] Kou E, Yao Y, Yang X, et al. Regulation mechanisms of carbon dots in the development of lettuce and tomato. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2021;9(2):944-953.

[43] Li H, Huang J, Lu F, et al. Impacts of carbon dots on Rice plants: boosting the growth and improving the disease resistance. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2018;1(3):663-672.

[44] Qian K, Guo H, Chen G, Ma C, Xing B. Distribution of different surface modified carbon dots in pumpkin seedlings. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):7991.

[45] Chandra S, Pradhan S, Mitra S, et al. High throughput electron transfer from carbon dots to chloroplast: a rationale of enhanced photosynthesis. Nanoscale. 2014;6(7):3647-3655.

[46] Li Y, Pan X, Xu X, et al. Carbon dots as light converter for plant photosynthesis: augmenting light coverage and quantum yield effect. J Hazard Mater. 2020;2021(410):124534.

[47] Li W, Wu S, Zhang H, et al. Enhanced biological photosynthetic efficiency using light-harvesting engineering with dual-emissive carbon dots. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(44):1804004.

[48] Li Y, Li W, Yang X, et al. Salvia miltiorrhiza-derived carbon dots as scavengers of reactive oxygen species for reducing oxidative damage of plants. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2021;4(1):113-120.

[49] Gohari G, Panahirad S, Sadeghi M, et al. Putrescine-functionalized carbon quantum dot (put-CQD) nanoparticles effectively prime grapevine (Vitis Vinifera cv. ‘Sultana’) against salt stress. BMC Plant Biol. 2021;21(1):1-15.

[50] Li Y, Gao J, Xu X, et al. Carbon dots as a protective agent alleviating abiotic stress on Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) through promoting nutrition assimilation and the defense system. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020;12(30):33575-33585.

[51] Yang H, Wang C, Chen F, et al. Foliar carbon dot amendment modulates carbohydrate metabolism, rhizospheric properties and drought tolerance in maize seedling. Sci Total Environ. 2022;809:151105.

[52] Wang H, Zhang M, Song Y, et al. Carbon dots promote the growth and photosynthesis of mung bean sprouts. Carbon N Y. 2018;136:94-102.

[53] Ezati P, Rhim J-W, Molaei R, et al. Preparation and characterization of B, S, and N-doped glucose carbon dots: antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activity. Sustain Mater Technol. 2022;32:e00397.

[54] Xiao D, Jiang M, Luo X, et al. Sustainable carbon dot-based AIEgens: promising light-harvesting materials for enhancing photosynthesis. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2021;9(11):4139-4145.

[55] Zheng Y, Xie G, Zhang X, et al. Bioimaging application and growth-promoting behavior of carbon dots from pollen on hydroponically cultivated Rome lettuce. ACS Omega. 2017;2(7):3958-3965.

[56] Luo X, Cao X, Wang C, et al. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots alleviate the damage from tomato bacterial wilt syndrome: systemic acquired resistance activation and reactive oxygen species scavenging. Environ Sci Nano. 2021;8(12):3806-3819.

[57] Schwartz SH, Hendrix B, Hoffer P, Sanders RA, Zheng W. Carbon dots for efficient small interfering RNA delivery and gene silencing in plants. Plant Physiol. 2020;184(2):647-657.

[58] Li Y, Xu X, Wu Y, et al. A review on the effects of carbon dots in plant systems. Mater Chem Front. 2020;4(2):437-448.

[59] Hu P, An J, Faulkner M, et al. Nanoparticle charge and size control foliar delivery efficiency to plant cells and organelles. ACS Nano. 2019;14(7):7970-7986.

[60] Pérez-de-Luque A. Interaction of nanomaterials with plants: what do we need for real applications in agriculture? Front Environ Sci. 2017;5.

[61] Tripathi S, Kapri S, Datta A, Bhattacharyya S. Influence of the morphology of carbon nanostructures on the stimulated growth of Gram Plant. RSC Adv. 2016;6(50):43864-43873.

[62] Borisjuk L, Rolletschek H, Neuberger T. Surveying the plant's world by magnetic resonance imaging. Plant J. 2012;70(1):129-146.

[63] Zhang M, Hu L, Wang H, et al. One-step hydrothermal synthesis of chiral carbon dots and their effects on mung bean plant growth. Nanoscale. 2018;10(26):12734-12742.

[64] Nguyen NT, McInturf SA, Mendoza-Cózatl DG. Hydroponics: a versatile system to study nutrient allocation and plant responses to nutrient availability and exposure to toxic elements. J Vis Exp. 2016;113(113):e54317.

[65] Liu W, Yao J, Chai H, et al. Concentration-dependent effect of photoluminescent carbon dots on the microbial activity of the soil studied by combination methods. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2015;39(2):857-863.

[66] Chen Q, Cao X, Li Y, et al. Functional carbon nanodots improve soil quality and tomato tolerance in saline-alkali soils. Sci Total Environ. 2022;830:154817.

[67] Chen J, Xie L, Zhang Q, et al. Anionic surfactant-assisted the transport of carbon dots through saturated soil and its variation with aqueous chemistry. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2022;644:128860.

[68] Lu T, Chen J, Zhang Q, Zhang M, Li Y, Qi Z. Surfactant-mediated mobility of carbon dots in saturated soil: comparison between anionic and cationic surfactants. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;30(13):37622-37633.

[69] Sun H, Wang M, Wang J, Wang W. Surface charge affects foliar uptake, transport and physiological effects of functionalized graphene quantum dots in plants. Sci Total Environ. 2022;812:151506.

[70] Yao Y, Yue L, Cao X, et al. Carbon dots embedded in nanoporous SiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing photosynthesis in agricultural crops. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2023;6(1):110-118.

[71] Minhas PS, Rane J, Pasala RK. Abiotic stress management for resilient agriculture. 2017.

[72] He M, He CQ, Ding NZ. Abiotic stresses: general defenses of land plants and chances for engineering multistress tolerance. Front Plant Sci. 2018;871(December):1-18.

[73] Choudhury FK, Rivero RM, Blumwald E, Mittler R. Reactive oxygen species, abiotic stress and stress combination. Plant J. 2017;90(5):856-867.

[74] Rogowska A, Szakiel A. The role of sterols in plant response to abiotic stress. Phytochem Rev. 2020;19(6):1525-1538.

[75] Kar RK. Plant responses to water stress: role of reactive oxygen species. Plant Signal Behav. 2011;6(11):1741-1745.

[76] Chen Z, Cuin TA, Zhou M, et al. Compatible solute accumulation and stress-mitigating effects in barley genotypes contrasting in their salt tolerance. J Exp Bot. 2007;58(15):4245-4255.

[77] Singh RK, Gupta V, Prasad M. Plant molecular chaperones: structural organization and their roles in abiotic stress tolerance. Mol Plant Abiotic Stress. 2019;221-239.

[78] Sah SK, Reddy KR, Li J. Abscisic acid and abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. Front Plant Sci. 2016;7(May):1-26.

[79] Choudhury S, Panda P, Sahoo L, Panda SK. Reactive oxygen species signaling in plants under abiotic stress. Plant Signal Behav. 2013;8(4):e23681.

[80] Zhao R, Yin K, Chen S. Hydrogen sulphide signalling in plant response to abiotic stress. Plant Biol. 2022;24(4):523-531.

[81] Simontacchi M, Galatro A, Ramos-Artuso F, Santa-María GE. Plant survival in a changing environment: the role of nitric oxide in plant responses to abiotic stress. Front Plant Sci. 2015;6.

[82] Liu J-H, Wang W, Wu H, Gong X, Moriguchi T. Polyamines function in stress tolerance: from synthesis to regulation. Front Plant Sci. 2015;6:827.

[83] Skalak J, Nicolas KL, Vankova R, Hejatko J. Signal integration in plant abiotic stress responses via multistep Phosphorelay signaling. Front Plant Sci. 2021;12.

[84] Tuteja N, Mahajan S. Calcium signaling network in plants: an overview. Plant Signal Behav. 2007;2(2):79-85.

[85] Yoon Y, Seo DH, Shin H, Kim HJ, Kim CM, Jang G. The role of stress-responsive transcription factors in modulating abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Agron. 2020;10(6):1-23.

[86] Osakabe Y, Osakabe K, Shinozaki K, Tran L-SP. Response of plants to water stress. Front Plant Sci. 2014;5:86.

[87] Jiang C, Cui Q, Feng K, Xu D, Li C, Zheng Q. Melatonin improves antioxidant capacity and ion homeostasis and enhances salt tolerance in maize seedlings. Acta Physiol Plant. 2016;38(4):82.

[88] Fuentes A, Almonacid L, Ocampo JA, Arriagada C. Synergistic interactions between a saprophytic fungal consortium and Rhizophagus Irregularis alleviate oxidative stress in plants grown in heavy metal contaminated soil. Plant Soil. 2016;407(1–2):355-366.

[89] Sajjad Y, Jaskani MJ, Asif M, Qasim M. Application of plant growth regulators in ornamental plants: a review. Pakistan J Agric Sci. 2017;54(2):327-333.

[90] Nelson BC, Johnson ME, Walker ML, Riley KR, Sims CM. Antioxidant cerium oxide nanoparticles in biology and medicine. Antioxidants. 2016;5(2):1-21.

[91] Gao L, Zhuang J, Nie L, et al. Intrinsic peroxidase-like activity of ferromagnetic nanoparticles. Nat Nanotechnol. 2007;2(9):577-583.

[92] Yao J, Cheng Y, Zhou M, et al. ROS scavenging Mn3O4 nanozymes for in vivo anti-inflammation. Chem Sci. 2018;9(11):2927-2933.

[93] Lee SS, Song W, Cho M, et al. Antioxidant properties of cerium oxide nanocrystals as a function of nanocrystal diameter and surface coating. ACS Nano. 2013;7(11):9693-9703.

[94] Liu F, Xiong F, Fan Y, et al. Facile and scalable fabrication engineering of fullerenol nanoparticles by improved alkaline-oxidation approach and its antioxidant potential in maize. J Nanopart Res. 2016;18(11):338.

[95] Yu Z, Li Q, Wang J, et al. Reactive oxygen species-related nanoparticle toxicity in the biomedical field. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2020;15(1):115.

[96] Song M-F, Li Y-S, Kasai H, Kawai K. Metal nanoparticle-induced micronuclei and oxidative DNA damage in mice. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2012;50(3):211-216.

[97] Patlolla AK, Hackett D, Tchounwou PB. Silver nanoparticle-induced oxidative stress-dependent toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats. Mol Cell Biochem. 2015;399(1):257-268.

[98] Lu F, Yang S, Song Y, et al. Hydroxyl functionalized carbon dots with strong radical scavenging ability promote cell proliferation. Mater Res Express. 2019;6(6):065030.

[99] Wang H, Xie Y, Na X, et al. Fluorescent carbon dots in baked lamb: formation, cytotoxicity and scavenging capability to free radicals. Food Chem. 2018;2019(286):405-412.

[100] Das B, Pal P, Dadhich P, Dutta J, Dhara S. In vivo cell tracking, reactive oxygen species scavenging, and antioxidative gene down regulation by long-term exposure of biomass-derived carbon dots. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2019;5(1):346-356.

[101] Innocenzi P, Stagi L. Carbon dots as oxidant-antioxidant nanomaterials, understanding the structure-properties relationship. A critical review. Nano Today. 2023;50:101837.

[102] Caverzan A, Casassola A, Brammer SP. Antioxidant responses of wheat plants under stress. Genet Mol Biol. 2016;39(1):1-6.

[103] Parwez R, Aftab T, Gill SS, Naeem M. Abscisic acid signaling and crosstalk with phytohormones in regulation of environmental stress responses. Environ Exp Bot. 2022;199:104885.

[104] El Moukhtari A, Cabassa-Hourton C, Farissi M, Savouré A. How does proline treatment promote salt stress tolerance during crop plant development? Front Plant Sci. 2020;11.

[105] Lu Y, Fricke W. Salt stress-regulation of root water uptake in a whole-plant and diurnal context. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(9):9-24.

[106] Munns R, Tester M. Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Ann Rev Plant Biol. 2008;59(1):651-681.

[107] Alharbi K, Al-Osaimi AA, Alghamdi BA. Sodium chloride (NaCl)-induced physiological alteration and oxidative stress generation in Pisum Sativum (L.): a toxicity assessment. ACS Omega. 2022;7(24):20819-20832.

[108] Guo Y, Jia W, Song J, Wang D, Chen M, Wang B. Thellungilla halophila is more adaptive to salinity than Arabidopsis Thaliana at stages of seed germination and seedling establishment. Acta Physiol Plant. 2012;34(4):1287-1294.

[109] Guo J, Suo S, Wang BS. Sodium chloride improves seed vigour of the Euhalophyte Suaeda Salsa. Seed Sci Res. 2015;25(3):335-344.

[110] Guo J, Li Y, Han G, Song J, Wang B. NaCl markedly improved the reproductive capacity of the Euhalophyte Suaeda Salsa. Funct Plant Biol. 2018;45(3):350-361.

[111] Zhao KF, Song J, Fan H, Zhou S, Zhao M. Growth response to ionic and osmotic stress of NaCl in salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive maize. J Integr Plant Biol. 2010;52(5):468-475.

[112] Feng ZT, Deng YQ, Fan H, Sun QJ, Sui N, Wang BS. Effects of NaCl stress on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Ulmus Pumila L. Seedlings in sand culture. Photosynthetica. 2014;52(2):313-320.

[113] Feng Z, Sun Q, Deng Y, Sun S, Zhang J, Wang B. Study on pathway and characteristics of ion secretion of salt glands of Limonium Bicolor. Acta Physiol Plant. 2014;36(10):2729-2741.

[114] Li Y, Tang Z, Pan Z, et al. Calcium-mobilizing properties of Salvia miltiorrhiza-derived carbon dots confer enhanced environmental adaptability in plants. ACS Nano. 2022;16(3):4357-4370.

[115] Kou E, Li W, Zhang H, et al. Nitrogen and sulfur co-doped carbon dots enhance drought resistance in tomato and mung beans. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2021;4(8):6093-6102.

[116] Singh A. Soil salinity: a global threat to sustainable development. Soile Use and Management. 2022;2021(1):39-67.

[117] Leksungnoen N. The Relationship between Salinity and Drought Tolerance in Turfgrasses and Woody Species. Utah State University; 2012.

[118] Su LX, Ma XL, Zhao KK, et al. Carbon nanodots for enhancing the stress resistance of Peanut plants. ACS Omega. 2018;3(12):17770-17777.

[119] Chen Q, Cao X, Nie X, Li Y, Liang T, Ci L. Alleviation role of functional carbon nanodots for tomato growth and soil environment under drought stress. J Hazard Mater. 2022;423(PB):127260.

[120] Shrestha B, Acosta-martinez V, Cox SB, Green MJ, Li S, Ca JE. An evaluation of the impact of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on soil microbial community structure and functioning. 2013;2015(261):188-197.

[121] Xin X, Zhao F, Zhao H, et al. Comparative assessment of polymeric and other nanoparticles impacts on soil microbial and biochemical properties. Geoderma. 2020;367:114278.

[122] Chen Y, Chen Y, Guo Q, Zhu G, Wang C, Liu Z. Effects of drought stress on the growth, physiology and secondary metabolite production in Pinellia Ternata Thunb. Pak J Bot. 2021;53(3):833-840.

[123] Giri J. Glycinebetaine and abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Plant Signal Behav. 2011;6(11):1746-1751.

[124] Pratap R, Handa R, Manchanda G. Nanoparticles in sustainable agriculture: An emerging opportunity. J Control Release. 2020;2021(329):1234-1248.

[125] Yashveer S, Redhu NS, Singh V, et al. Nanoparticles in agriculture: characterization, uptake and role in mitigating heat stress. Nat Res Human Health. 2022;2(2):160-181.

[126] Shalaby TA, Bayoumi Y, Eid Y, et al. Can nanofertilizers mitigate multiple environmental stresses for higher crop productivity? Sustain. 2022;14(6):1-22.

[127] Kumari S, Khanna RR, Nazir F, et al. Bio-synthesized nanoparticles in developing plant abiotic stress resilience: a new boon for sustainable approach. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(8):4452.

[128] Wang H, Kang Y, Li H, et al. Salvia miltiorrhiza derived carbon dots and their heat stress tolerance of Italian lettuce by promoting growth and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity. ACS Omega. 2021;6(47):32262-32269.

[129] Zhong M, Yue L, Chen Q, et al. Spermidine carbon dots enhance thermotolerance by modulating photosynthesis and cellular redox homeostasis in tomato. Environ Sci Nano. 2023;10(2):595-610.

[130] Dubey R, Gupta DK, Sharma GK. In: Rakshit A, Singh HB, Singh AK, Singh US, Fraceto L, eds. Chemical Stress on Plants – New Frontiers in Stress Management for Durable Agriculture. Springer Singapore; 2020:101-128.

[131] Zhai Y, Zheng F, Li D, Cao X, Teng Y. Distribution, genesis, and human health risks of groundwater heavy metals impacted by the typical setting of Songnen plain of NE China. Int J Environ Res Public Heal. 2022;19(6):3571.

[132] Rai PK, Lee SS, Zhang M, Tsang YF, Kim K-H. Heavy metals in food crops: health risks, fate, mechanisms, and management. Environ Int. 2019;125:365-385.

[133] Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R. Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon. 2020;6(9):e04691.

[134] Hu R, Wang X, Dai S, Shao D, Hayat T, Alsaedi A. Application of graphitic carbon nitride for the removal of Pb (II) and aniline from aqueous solutions. Chem Eng J. 2015;260:469-477.

[135] Yang J, Hou B, Wang J, et al. Nanomaterials for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Nanomaterials. 2019;9(3):424.

[136] Muthusaravanan S, Sivarajasekar N, Vivek JS, et al. Phytoremediation of heavy metals: mechanisms, methods and enhancements. Environ Chem Lett. 2018;16(4):1339-1359.

[137] Song B, Xu P, Chen M, et al. Using nanomaterials to facilitate the phytoremediation of contaminated soil. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2019;49(9):791-824.

[138] Zhu Y, Xu F, Liu Q, et al. Nanomaterials and plants: positive effects, toxicity and the remediation of metal and metalloid pollution in soil. Sci Total Environ. 2019;662:414-421.

[139] Mustafa K, Shakeel I, Kanwal J, et al. Nano-phytoremediation technology in environmental remediation. In: Kumar V, Shah MP, Shahi SKBT-PT, eds. Phytoremediation Technology for the Removal of Heavy Metals and Other Contaminants from Soil and Water. Elsevier; 2022:433-459.

[140] Rajput VD, Minkina T, Upadhyay SK, et al. Nanotechnology in the restoration of polluted soil. Nanomaterials. 2026;12(5):769.

[141] Li J, Xiao L, Cheng Y, et al. Applications of carbon quantum dots to alleviate Cd2+ phytotoxicity in citrus maxima seedlings. Chemosphere. 2019;236:124385.

[142] Xiao L, Guo H, Wang S, Li J, Wang Y, Xing B. Carbon dots alleviate the toxicity of cadmium ions (Cd2+) toward wheat seedlings. Environ Sci Nano. 2019;6(5):1493-1506.

[143] Chandrakar V, Yadu B, Korram J, et al. Carbon dot induces tolerance to arsenic by regulating arsenic uptake, reactive oxygen species detoxification and defense-related gene expression in Cicer Arietinum L. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2020;156-(September):78-86.

[144] Chen Q, Man H, Zhu L, et al. Enhanced plant antioxidant capacity and biodegradation of phenol by immobilizing peroxidase on amphoteric nitrogen-doped carbon dots. Catal Commun. 2019;2020(134):105847.

[145] Chen Q, Liu B, Man H, et al. Enhanced bioaccumulation efficiency and tolerance for Cd (II) in Arabidopsis Thaliana by amphoteric nitrogen-doped carbon dots. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2019;2020(190):110108.

[146] Wang C, Ji Y, Cao X, et al. Carbon dots improve nitrogen bioavailability to promote the growth and nutritional quality of soybeans under drought stress. ACS Nano. 2022;16(8):12415-12424.

[147] Chen Q, Cao X, Liu B, et al. Effects of functional carbon nanodots on water hyacinth response to Cd/Pb stress: implication for phytoremediation. J Environ Manage. 2021;299:113624.

[148] Lattanzio V, Lattanzio VMT, Cardinali A. Role of phenolics in the resistance mechanisms of plants against fungal pathogens and insects. Phytochem Adv Res. 2006;661(2):23-67.

[149] Fisher MC, Henk DA, Briggs CJ, et al. Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature. 2012;484(7393):186-194.

[150] Liang J, Li W, Chen J, et al. Antibacterial activity and synergetic mechanism of carbon dots against gram-positive and -negative bacteria. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2021;4(9):6937-6945.

[151] Dong X, Liang W, Meziani MJ, Sun Y-P, Yang L. Carbon dots as potent antimicrobial agents. Theranostics. 2020;10(2):671-686.

[152] Chu X, Wang M, Shi S, et al. A review on properties and antibacterial applications of polymer-functionalized carbon dots. J Mater Sci. 2022;57(27):12752-12781.

[153] Wu X, Abbas K, Yang Y, Li Z, Tedesco AC, Bi H. Photodynamic anti-bacteria by carbon dots and their nano-composites. Pharmaceuticals. 2022;15(4):487.

[154] Kabbage M, Yarden O, Dickman MB. Pathogenic attributes of Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum: switching from a biotrophic to necrotrophic lifestyle. Plant Sci. 2015;233:53-60.

[155] Glazebrook J. Contrasting mechanisms of defense against biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. Ann Rev Phytopathol. 2005;43(1):205-227.

[156] Jacobs AK, Lipka V, Burton RA, et al. An Arabidopsis Callose synthase, GSL5, is required for wound and papillary Callose formation. Plant Cell. 2003;15(11):2503-2513.

[157] Mang HG, Laluk KA, Parsons EP, et al. The Arabidopsis RESURRECTION1 gene regulates a novel antagonistic interaction in plant defense to biotrophs and necrotrophs. Plant Physiol. 2009;151(1):290-305.

[158] Saddique M, Kamran M, Shahbaz M. Chapter 4 – differential responses of plants to biotic stress and the role of metabolites. In: Ahmad P, Ahanger MA, Singh VP, Tripathi DK, Alam P, Alyemeni MNBT-PM, eds. Plant Metabolites and Regulation Under Environmental Stress. Academic Press; 2018:69-87.

[159] De Vos M, Van Oosten VR, Van Poecke RMP, et al. Signal signature and transcriptome changes of Arabidopsis during pathogen and insect attack. Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 2005;18(9):923-937.

[160] El-Baky NA, Amara AAAF. Recent approaches towards control of fungal diseases in plants: an updated review. J Fungi (Basel, Switzerland). 2021;7(11):900.

[161] Youssef K, de Oliveira AG, Tischer CA, Hussain I, Roberto SR. Synergistic effect of a novel chitosan/silica nanocomposites-based formulation against gray mold of table grapes and its possible mode of action. Int J Biol Macromol. 2019;141:247-258.

[162] Zubrod JP, Bundschuh M, Arts G, et al. Fungicides: an overlooked pesticide class? Environ Sci Technol. 2019;53(7):3347-3365.

[163] Bonmatin J-M, Giorio C, Girolami V, et al. Environmental fate and exposure; neonicotinoids and fipronil. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2015;22(1):35-67.

[164] Nettles R, Watkins J, Ricks K, et al. Influence of pesticide seed treatments on rhizosphere fungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities in maize and soybean. Appl Soil Ecol. 2016;102:61-69.

[165] Lefrancq M, Imfeld G, Payraudeau S, Millet M. Kresoxim methyl deposition, drift and runoff in a vineyard catchment. Sci Total Environ. 2013;442:503-508.

[166] Wightwick AM, Bui AD, Zhang P, et al. Environmental fate of fungicides in surface waters of a horticultural-production catchment in southeastern Australia. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2012;62(3):380-390.

[167] Mao W, Schuler MA, Berenbaum MR. Disruption of quercetin metabolism by fungicide affects energy production in honey bees (Apis Mellifera). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017;114(10):2538-2543.

[168] Cizelj I, Glavan G, Božič J, Oven I, Mrak V, Narat M. Prochloraz and Coumaphos induce different gene expression patterns in three developmental stages of the Carniolan honey bee (Apis Mellifera Carnica Pollmann). Pestic Biochem Physiol. 2016;128:68-75.

[169] Reilly TJ, Smalling KL, Orlando JL, Kuivila KM. Occurrence of Boscalid and other selected fungicides in surface water and groundwater in three targeted use areas in the United States. Chemosphere. 2012;89(3):228-234.

[170] Gossen BD, Carisse O, Kawchuk LM, Van Der Heyden H, McDonald MR. Recent changes in fungicide use and the fungicide insensitivity of plant pathogens in Canada. Can J Plant Pathol. 2014;36(3):327-340.

[171] Gullino ML, Leroux P, Smith CM. Uses and challenges of novel compounds for plant disease control. Crop Prot. 2000;19(1):1-11.

[172] McGrath MT. Fungicide resistance in cucurbit powdery mildew: experiences and challenges. Plant Dis. 2001;85(3):236-245.

[173] Rozhin A, Batasheva S, Kruychkova M, Cherednichenko Y, Rozhina E, Fakhrullin R. Biogenic silver nanoparticles: synthesis and application as antibacterial and antifungal agents. Micromachines. 2021;12(12):1480.

[174] Munir N, Gulzar W, Abideen Z, Hancock JT, El-Keblawy A, Radicetti E. Nanotechnology improves disease resistance in plants for food security: applications and challenges. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 2023;51:102781.

[175] Ji H, Gheysen G, Ullah C, et al. The role of Thionins in rice defence against root pathogens. Mol Plant Pathol. 2015;16(8):870-881.

[176] Senapati M, Tiwari A, Sharma N, et al. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn pathophysiology: status and prospects of sheath blight disease management in rice. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:881116.

[177] Priyadarshini E, Rawat K, Prasad T, Bohidar HB. Antifungal efficacy of Au@ carbon dots nanoconjugates against opportunistic fungal pathogen, Candida albicans. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2018;163:355-361.

[178] Li H, Huang J, Song Y, et al. Degradable carbon dots with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018;10(32):26936-26946.

[179] Chen X, Li W, Chen J, et al. Transcriptomics integrated with metabolomics reveals 2-Methoxy-1, 4-naphthoquinone-based carbon dots induced molecular shifts in Penicillium italicum. J Fungi. 2022;8(5):420.

[180] Gao Z, Li X, Shi L, Yang Y. Deep eutectic solvents-derived carbon dots for detection of mercury (II), photocatalytic antifungal activity and fluorescent labeling for C. albicans. Spectrochim Acta - Part A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2019;220(3):117080.

[181] Zhang J, Liu S, Wang X, et al. Highly efficient Ti 3 + self-doped TiO 2 Co-modified with carbon dots and palladium nanocomposites for disinfection of bacterial and fungi. J Hazard Mater. 2021;413(February):125318.

[182] Muktha H, Sharath R, Kottam N, Smrithi SP, Samrat K, Ankitha P. Green synthesis of carbon dots and evaluation of its pharmacological activities. Bionanoscience. 2020;10(3):731-744.

[183] Guo M, Zhang X, Li M, et al. Label-free proteomic analysis of molecular effects of 2-Methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone on Penicillium italicum. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(14):3459.

[184] Grandjean P. Paracelsus revisited: the dose concept in a complex world. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2016;119(2):126-132.

[185] Shen C, Rawls HR, Esquivel-Upshaw J, Biocompatibility F. Phillips' Science of Dental Materials. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2021:365.

[186] Privett BJ, Deupree SM, Backlund CJ, et al. Synergy of nitric oxide and silver sulfadiazine against gram-negative, gram-positive, and antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Mol Pharm. 2010;7(6):2289-2296.

[187] Li Q, Ohulchanskyy TY, Liu R, et al. Photoluminescent carbon dots as biocompatible nanoprobes for targeting cancer cells in vitro. J Phys Chem C. 2010;114(28):12062-12068.

[188] Kim TH, Sirdaarta JP, Zhang Q, et al. Selective toxicity of hydroxyl-rich carbon nanodots for cancer research. Nano Res. 2018;11(4):2204-2216.

[189] Cailotto S, Amadio E, Facchin M, et al. Carbon dots from sugars and ascorbic acid: role of the precursors on morphology, properties, toxicity, and drug uptake. ACS Med Chem Lett. 2018;9(8):832-837.

[190] Fan J, Claudel M, Ronzani C, Arezki Y, Lebeau L, Pons F. Physicochemical characteristics that affect carbon dot safety: lessons from a comprehensive study on a nanoparticle library. Int J Pharm. 2019;569:118521.

[191] Bao X, Yuan Y, Chen J, et al. In vivo Theranostics with near-infrared-emitting carbon dots—highly efficient photothermal therapy based on passive targeting after intravenous administration. Light Sci Appl. 2018;7(1):91.

[192] Nurunnabi M, Khatun Z, Nafiujjaman M, Lee D, Lee Y. Surface coating of graphene quantum dots using mussel-inspired polydopamine for biomedical optical imaging. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2013;5(16):8246-8253.

[193] Chen J, Dou R, Yang Z, et al. The effect and fate of water-soluble carbon nanodots in maize (Zea Mays L.). Nanotoxicology. 2016;10(6):818-828.

[194] Li X, Zhou Z, Lu D, et al. The effect of pristine carbon-based nanomaterial on the growth of Green gram sprouts and PH of water. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2014;9(1):583.

[195] Yan X, Xu Q, Li D, Wang J, Han R. Carbon dots inhibit root growth by disrupting auxin biosynthesis and transport in Arabidopsis. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021;216:112168.

[196] Yao K, Lv X, Zheng G, et al. Effects of carbon quantum dots on aquatic environments: comparison of toxicity to organisms at different trophic levels. Environ Sci Technol. 2018;52(24):14445-14451.

[197] Arias-Estévez M, López-Periago E, Martínez-Carballo E, Simal-Gándara J, Mejuto J-C, García-Río L. The mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils and the pollution of groundwater resources. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2008;123(4):247-260.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 2024 The Authors. EcoMat published by The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.