Release of microfibers from surgical face masks: an undesirable contributor to aquatic pollution

Abstract

The worldwide usage of surgical face masks (SFM) has increased rapidly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Its degradation possibly produces billions of microplastics (MPs) in the environment. To quantify the release of microfibers (MFs), unused SFM were treated with eight different aqueous solutions, each with five replications in two categories, i.e., freshwater (FW) treatments [800 mL FW, 40 mL of 95% alcohol + 800 mL FW, 40 mL of 30% H₂O₂ + 800 mL FW, and 4 g sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) + 800 mL FW], and saltwater (SW) treatments (800 mL SW, 40 mL of 95% alcohol + 800 mL SW, 40 mL of 30% H₂O₂ + 800 mL SW, and 4 g SDS + 800 mL SW) at 25 °C for 60 days. The predominant MFs disposed from SFM were transparent and sized between 1.0 to < 0.5 mm. The mean highest amount of MFs observed was 4,911.3 (1-day) and 6,180.24 (30-day) in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) mixed with SW, and 7,269.7 (60-day) in SDS with FW. The greatest number of MFs released per day was 275 (SDS in SW), followed by 193 (SDS in FW). The results indicated that if different kinds of water are mixed with detergent (SDS), it could accelerate the disposal of MP, whereas SW has considerably higher ability to release more MFs in a shorter time period compared to FW. Furthermore, this study implied that the inappropriate dumping of SFM could unfortunately escalate the preexisting MP pollution in the aquatic environment, which could negatively affect the aquatic living beings.

Keywords

Microplastics / face mask fibers / alcohol / hydrogen peroxide / sodium dodecyl sulfate / aquatic environment

References

[1] Eriksen M,Kiessling T.Microplastic sampling with the AVANI trawl compared to two neuston trawls in the Bay of Bengal and South Pacific.Environ Pollut2018;232:430-9

[2] Horton AA.Microplastics: an introduction to environmental transport processes.WIREs Water2018;5:e1268

[3] Paul-pont I,Gonzalez-fernandez C.Constraints and priorities for conducting experimental exposures of marine organisms to microplastics.Front Mar Sci2018;5:252

[4] Karami A,Choo CK,Karbalaei S.Microplastic and mesoplastic contamination in canned sardines and sprats.Sci Total Environ2018;612:1380-6

[5] Fadare OO.COVID-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment.Sci Total Environ2020;737:140279 PMCID:PMC7297173

[6] Anastopoulos I.Single-use surgical face masks, as a potential source of microplastics: do they act as pollutant carriers?.J Mol Liq2021;326:115247 PMCID:PMC7834851

[7] Kumar M,Sarsaiya S.Current research trends on micro- and nano-plastics as an emerging threat to global environment: a review.J Hazard Mater2021;409:124967

[8] Hasan NA,Bashar A.Face masks: protecting the wearer but neglecting the aquatic environment? - A perspective from Bangladesh.Environ Chall2021;4:100126 PMCID:PMC9040459

[9] Prata JC,Walker TR,Rocha-Santos T.COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on the use and management of plastics.Environ Sci Technol2020;54:7760-5

[10] De-la-Torre GE.What we need to know about PPE associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in the marine environment.Mar Pollut Bull2021;163:111879 PMCID:PMC7698688

[11] Silva AL, Prata JC, Mouneyrac C, Barcelò D, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. Risks of COVID-19 face masks to wildlife: present and future research needs.Sci Total Environ2021;792:148505 PMCID:PMC8217904

[12] Torres FG.Face mask waste generation and management during the COVID-19 pandemic: an overview and the Peruvian case.Sci Total Environ2021;786:147628 PMCID:PMC8105123

[13] Worby CJ.Face mask use in the general population and optimal resource allocation during the COVID-19 pandemic.Nat Commun2020;11:4049 PMCID:PMC7426871

[14] Prata JC,Duarte AC.Disposable over reusable face masks: public safety or environmental disaster?.Environments2021;8:31

[15] Chowdhury H,Sait SM.Estimating marine plastic pollution from COVID-19 face masks in coastal regions.Mar Pollut Bull2021;168:112419 PMCID:PMC8064874

[16] Aragaw TA.Surgical face masks as a potential source for microplastic pollution in the COVID-19 scenario.Mar Pollut Bull2020;159:111517 PMCID:PMC7381927

[17] Chua MH,Goh SS.Face masks in the new COVID-19 normal: materials, testing, and perspectives.Research2020;2020:7286735 PMCID:PMC7429109

[18] Shen M,Song B.Neglected microplastics pollution in global COVID-19: disposable surgical masks.Sci Total Environ2021;790:148130 PMCID:PMC8164515

[19] Liu Y,Luo L.Long-term release kinetic characteristics of microplastic from commonly used masks into water under simulated natural environments.Sci Total Environ2023;876:162526

[20] Liang H,Liu D.The behavior of microplastics and nanoplastics release from UV-aged masks in the water.Sci Total Environ2023;891:164361

[21] Jiang H,Zhang Y.Insight into the microplastics release from disposable face mask: simulated environment and removal strategy.Chemosphere2022;309:136748 PMCID:PMC9535493

[22] Sunday MO,Ayeni TT.Heterogeneity and potential aquatic toxicity of hydrogen peroxide concentrations in selected rivers across Japan.Sci Total Environ2020;733:139349

[23] Asio JRG,Antonatos C,Trinidad LC.Sodium lauryl sulfate and its potential impacts on organisms and the environment: a thematic analysis.Emerg Contam2023;9:100205

[24] Hernandez E,Mitrano DM.Polyester textiles as a source of microplastics from households: a mechanistic study to understand microfiber release during washing.Environ Sci Technol2017;51:7036-46

[25] Wang T,Zou X.Emission of primary microplastics in mainland China: invisible but not negligible.Water Res2019;162:214-24

[26] Saliu F,Raguso C,Galli P.The release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment.Environ Adv2021;4:100042

[27] Napper IE.Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: effects of fabric type and washing conditions.Mar Pollut Bull2016;112:39-45

[28] Chen X,Liu Q,Xiong X.Used disposable face masks are significant sources of microplastics to environment.Environ Pollut2021;285:117485 PMCID:PMC8802354

[29] Akhbarizadeh R,Nabipour I.Abandoned COVID-19 personal protective equipment along the Bushehr shores, the Persian Gulf: an emerging source of secondary microplastics in coastlines.Mar Pollut Bull2021;168:112386 PMCID:PMC8055201

[30] Enyoh CE,Verla EN,Amaobi CE.Airborne microplastics: a review study on method for analysis, occurrence, movement and risks.Environ Monit Assess2019;191:668

[31] Sun J,Zhou GJ.Release of microplastics from discarded surgical masks and their adverse impacts on the marine copepod Tigriopus japonicus.Environ Sci Technol Lett2021;8:1065-70

[32] Jiang H,Wang L,Wang H.A review of disposable facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic: a focus on microplastics release.Chemosphere2023;312:137178 PMCID:PMC9640709

[33] Ardusso M,Buzzi NS,Fernández-Severini MD.COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on plastic and antiviral polymeric textile causing pollution on beaches and coasts of South America.Sci Total Environ2021;763:144365 PMCID:PMC7726578

[34] Song YK,Jang M,Jung SW.Combined effects of UV exposure duration and mechanical abrasion on microplastic fragmentation by polymer type.Environ Sci Technol2017;51:4368-76

[35] Zhang K,Tubić A.Understanding plastic degradation and microplastic formation in the environment: a review.Environ Pollut2021;274:116554

[36] Castro-Jiménez J,Fornier M,Sempéré R.Macro-litter in surface waters from the Rhone River: plastic pollution and loading to the NW Mediterranean Sea.Mar Pollut Bull2019;146:60-6

[37] Kane IA,Miramontes E.Seafloor microplastic hotspots controlled by deep-sea circulation.Science2020;368:1140-5

[38] Torres-Agullo A,Moreno T.Overview on the occurrence of microplastics in air and implications from the use of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.Sci Total Environ2021;800:149555 PMCID:PMC8520475

[39] Cooper DA.Effects of mechanical and chemical processes on the degradation of plastic beach debris on the island of Kauai, Hawaii.Mar Pollut Bull2010;60:650-4

[40] Dharmaraj S,Hariharan S.The COVID-19 pandemic face mask waste: a blooming threat to the marine environment.Chemosphere2021;272:129601 PMCID:PMC7836388

[41] Morgana S,Amalfitano S.Uncovering the release of micro/nanoplastics from disposable face masks at times of COVID-19.J Hazard Mater2021;419:126507 PMCID:PMC8234265

[42] Kenney MC,Mcgarry FJ.The effects of sea water and concentrated salt solutions on the fatigue of nylon 6,6 fibres.J Mater Sci1985;20:2060-70

[43] Efimova I,Bagaev A,Chubarenko IP.Secondary microplastics generation in the sea swash zone with coarse bottom sediments: laboratory experiments.Front Mar Sci2018;5:313

[44] Thompson RC,Mitchell RP.Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?.Science2004;304:838

[45] Su L,Li L.Microplastics in Taihu Lake, China.Environ Pollut2016;216:711-9

[46] Murphy F,Carbonnier F.Wastewater treatment works (WwTW) as a source of microplastics in the aquatic environment.Environ Sci Technol2016;50:5800-8

[47] Reid AJ,Creed IF.Emerging threats and persistent conservation challenges for freshwater biodiversity.Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc2019;94:849-73

[48] Aragaw TA.Distribution and impact of microplastics in the aquatic systems: a review of ecotoxicological effects on biota. In: Muthu SS, editor. Microplastic Pollution. Singapore: Springer; 2021. p. 65-104.

[49] Singh RP,Das AP.Synthetic microfibers: pollution toxicity and remediation.Chemosphere2020;257:127199

[50] Gallo Neto H,Browning J.Mortality of a juvenile Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus, Spheniscidae) associated with the ingestion of a PFF-2 protective mask during the COVID-19 pandemic.Mar Pollut Bull2021;166:112232 PMCID:PMC7954659

[51] Hiemstra AF,Gravendeel B.The effects of COVID-19 litter on animal life.Animal Biol2021;71:215-31Available from: https://www.remed-zero-plastique.org/upload/resource/619cd4bd87c84_[15707563%20-%20Animal%20Biology]%20The%20effects%20of%20COVID-19%20litter%20on%20animal%20life.pdf. [Last accessed on 5 Sep 2023]

[52] Miller ME,Kroon FJ.Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of microplastics in marine organisms: a review and meta-analysis of current data.PLoS One2020;15:e0240792 PMCID:PMC7567360

[53] Kutralam-Muniasamy G,Elizalde-Martínez I.An overview of recent advances in micro/nano beads and microfibers research: critical assessment and promoting the less known.Sci Total Environ2020;740:139991

[54] Santos D,Luzio A.Toxicological effects induced on early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio) after an acute exposure to microplastics alone or co-exposed with copper.Chemosphere2020;261:127748

[55] Zheng X,Yuan Y.Growth inhibition, toxin production and oxidative stress caused by three microplastics in Microcystis aeruginosa.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2021;208:111575

[56] Klemeš JJ,Tan RR.Minimising the present and future plastic waste, energy and environmental footprints related to COVID-19.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2020;127:109883 PMCID:PMC7183989

[57] Wang Y,Li Y.Effects of exposure of polyethylene microplastics to air, water and soil on their adsorption behaviors for copper and tetracycline.Chem Eng J2021;404:126412

[58] Alnajar N,Turner A.Impacts of microplastic fibres on the marine mussel, Mytilus galloprovinciallis.Chemosphere2021;262:128290

[59] Hamed M,Osman AGM.Assessment the effect of exposure to microplastics in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) early juvenile: I. blood biomarkers.Chemosphere2019;228:345-50

[60] Espinosa C,Esteban MÁ.Effects of dietary polyvinylchloride microparticles on general health, immune status and expression of several genes related to stress in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.).Fish Shellfish Immunol2017;68:251-9

[61] Meier P,Hirsch C.Evaluation of fiber and debris release from protective COVID-19 mask textiles and in vitro acute cytotoxicity effects.Environ Int2022;167:107364 PMCID:PMC9212752

[62] Soo XYD,Yeo CCJ.Polylactic acid face masks: are these the sustainable solutions in times of COVID-19 pandemic?.Sci Total Environ2022;807:151084 PMCID:PMC8531277

[63] Jiang H,Bian K.Surface change of microplastics in aquatic environment and the removal by froth flotation assisted with cationic and anionic surfactants.Water Res2023;233:119794

[64] Bian K,Jiang H,Wang H.Is the presence of Cu(II) and p-benzoquinone a challenge for the removal of microplastics from landfill leachate?.Sci Total Environ2022;851:158395