Advances in adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a narrative review

Abstract

Cardiac arrest occurs rapidly, requires high timeliness in treatment, and has a poor prognosis. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a key intervention to save the lives of patients with cardiac arrest. In recent years, CPR has made significant progress with the update of evidence-based research and technological development. The evolution of specific recommendations in international guidelines reflects the changes in the certainty of and understanding about emerging evidence. To unravel the logical progression of cognitive development in the CPR field, this review systematically clarifies the evidence base and evolutionary history of recommendations for core components of adult CPR, including the chain of survival, interruptions in compressions, high-quality CPR, early defibrillation, dispatcher-assisted CPR, extracorporeal CPR, and temperature control. Moreover, it identifies knowledge gaps and proposes potential development directions to provide systemic insights and strategic thinking in CPR for providers, researchers, and healthcare administrators.

Keywords

Chain of survival / Dispatcher-assisted CPR / Early defibrillation / Extracorporeal CPR / High-quality CPR / Interruptions in compressions / Temperature control

Conflict of interest statement

Yuguo Chen is the Editor-in-Chief of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, and Feng Xu is an Editorial Board member of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine. The article was subject to the journal’s standard procedures, with peer review handled independently of the Editor-in-Chief, this Editorial Board member, and their research groups. The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author contributions

Chen Y, Xu F, and Zheng W contributed to the conceptualization and design of this review. Zheng W, Liu X, Ren Y, Li R, Li Y, Lv Y, Shan L, and Feng Z participated in the systematic literature review, critical discussion of the content, and information summarization. Zheng W, Liu X, and Ren Y drafted and edited the manuscript before submission. All authors gave their approval to the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by grants from the Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases-National Science and Technology Major Project (2023ZD0505500, 2023ZD0505504), Key R&D Program of Shandong Province (2022ZLGX03), National Distinguished Physician Program, and Taishan Pandeng Scholar Program of Shandong Province (tspd20240819).

Ethical approval of studies and informed consent

None.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank national and international experts in the field of cardiac arrest for their valuable suggestions on the manuscript.

References

[1] Bray JE, Grasner JT, Nolan JP, et al.; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation outcome reports: 2024 update of the Utstein out-of-hospital cardiac arrest registry template. Circulation. 2024; 150(9):e203-e223. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001243

[2] Myat A, Song K-J, Rea T. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: current concepts. Lancet. 2018; 391(10124):970-979. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30472-0

[3] Zheng J, Lv C, Zheng W, et al. BASIC-OHCA Coordinators and Investigators. Incidence, process of care, and outcomes of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in China: a prospective study of the BASIC-OHCA registry. Lancet Public Health. 2023; 8(12):e923-e932. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(23)00173-1

[4] Martin SS, Aday AW, Allen NB, et al.; American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Committee. 2025 Heart disease and stroke statistics: a report of US and global data from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2025; 151(8):e41-e660. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001303

[5] Cummins RO. From concept to standard-of-care? Review of the clinical experience with automated external defibrillators. Ann Emerg Med. 1989; 18(12):1269-1275. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(89)80257-4

[6] Berg KM, Bray JE, Djärv T, et al. Executive summary: 2025 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation consensus on science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2025; 152(16_suppl_1):S2-S22. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001361

[7] Zoll PM, Linenthal AJ, Gibson W, Paul MH, Norman LR. Termination of ventricular fibrillation in man by externally applied electric countershock. N Engl J Med. 1956; 254(16):727-732. doi:10.1056/NEJM195604192541601

[8] Safar P, Escarraga LA, Elam JO. A comparison of the mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-airway methods of artificial respiration with the chest-pressure arm-lift methods. N Engl J Med. 1958; 258(14):671-677. doi:10.1056/NEJM195804032581401

[9] Kouwenhoven WB, Jude JR, Knickerbocker GG. Closed-chest cardiac massage. JAMA. 1960; 173:1064-1067. doi:10.1001/jama.1960.03020280004002

[10] Schnaubelt S, Monsieurs KG, Fijacko N, et al.; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation Education, Implementation and Teams Task Force. International facets of the ‘chain of survival’ for out-of-hospital and in-hospital cardiac arrest - a scoping review. Resusc Plus. 2024; 19:100689. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100689

[11] Perkins GD, Neumar R, Monsieurs KG, et al.; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation-review of the last 25 years and vision for the future. Resuscitation. 2017; 121:104-116. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2017.09.029

[12] Part 1: introduction to the international guidelines 2000 for CPR and ECC: a consensus on science. Circulation. 2000; 102(Suppl 8):I1-I11. doi:10.1161/01.cir.102.suppl_1.i-1

[13] Olasveengen TM, de Caen AR, Mancini ME, et al.; 2017 ILCOR Collaborators. 2017 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations summary. Circulation. 2017; 136(23):e424-e440. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000541

[14] Cummins RO, Ornato JP, Thies WH, Pepe PE. concept. Improving survival from sudden cardiac arrest: the “chain of survival” concept. A statement for health professionals from the Advanced Cardiac Life Support Subcommittee and the Emergency Cardiac Care Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1991; 83(5):1832-1847. doi:10.1161/01.cir.83.5.1832

[15] Mayron R, Long RS, Ruiz E. The 911 emergency telephone number: impact on emergency medical systems access in a metropolitan area. Am J Emerg Med. 1984; 2(6):491-493. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(84)90070-6

[16] Mandel LP, Cobb LA. CPR training in the community. Ann Emerg Med. 1985; 14(7):669-671. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(85)80885-4

[17] Cummins RO, Eisenberg MS, Hallstrom AP, Litwin PE. Survival of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with early initiation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am J Emerg Med. 1985; 3(2):114-119. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(85)90032-4

[18] Bossaert L, Van Hoeyweghen R. Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. The Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Resuscitation. 1989;17(Suppl):S55-S69. doi:10.1016/0300-9572(89)90091-9

[19] Stults KR, Brown DD, Schug VL, Bean JA. Prehospital defibrillation performed by emergency medical technicians in rural communities. N Engl J Med. 1984; 310(4):219-223. doi:10.1056/NEJM198401263100403

[20] Eisenberg MS, Hallstrom AP, Copass MK, Bergner L, Short F, Pierce J. Treatment of ventricular fibrillation. Emergency medical technician defibrillation and paramedic services. JAMA. 1984; 251(13):1723-1726. doi:10.1001/jama.251.13.1723

[21] Atkins JM. Emergency medical service systems in acute cardiac care: state of the art. Circulation. 1986; 74(6Pt 2):IV4-IV8.

[22] Field JM, Hazinski MF, Sayre MR, et al. Part 1: executive summary: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2010; 122(18Suppl 3): S640-S656. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970889

[23] Peberdy MA, Callaway CW, Neumar RW, et al.; American Heart Association. Part 9: post-cardiac arrest care: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2010; 122(18Suppl 3): S768-S786. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971002

[24] Hazinski MF, Nolan JP, Billi JE, et al. Part 1: executive summary: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2010; 122(16Suppl 2): S250-S275. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970897

[25] Neumar RW, Nolan JP, Adrie C, et al. Post-cardiac arrest syndrome: epidemiology, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognostication. A consensus statement from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (American Heart Association, Australian and New Zealand Council on Resuscitation, European Resuscitation Council, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, InterAmerican Heart Foundation, Resuscitation Council of Asia, and the Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa); the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee; the Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; the Council on Cardiopulmonary, Perioperative, and Critical Care; the Council on Clinical Cardiology; and the Stroke Council. Circulation. 2008; 118(23):2452-2483. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.190652

[26] Laurent I, Monchi M, Chiche JD, et al. Reversible myocardial dysfunction in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 40(12):2110-2116. doi:10.1016/s0735-1097(02)02594-9

[27] Laver S, Farrow C, Turner D, Nolan J. Mode of death after admission to an intensive care unit following cardiac arrest. Intens Care Med. 2004; 30(11):2126-2128. doi:10.1007/s00134-004-2425-z

[28] Group HaCAS. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346(8):549-556. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa012689

[29] Bernard SA, Gray TW, Buist MD, et al. Treatment of comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with induced hypothermia. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346(8):557-563. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa003289

[30] Sunde K, Pytte M, Jacobsen D, et al. Implementation of a standardised treatment protocol for post resuscitation care after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2007; 73(1):29-39. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.08.016

[31] Gaieski DF, Band RA, Abella BS, et al. Early goal-directed hemodynamic optimization combined with therapeutic hypothermia in comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2009; 80(4):418-424. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.12.015

[32] Rea TD, Fahrenbruch C, Culley L, et al. CPR with chest compression alone or with rescue breathing. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363(5):423-433. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0908993

[33] Jost D, Degrange H, Verret C, et al. DEFI 2005 Work Group. DEFI 2005: a randomized controlled trial of the effect of automated external defibrillator cardiopulmonary resuscitation protocol on outcome from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2010; 121(14):1614-1622. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.878389

[34] Stiell IG, Nichol G, Leroux BG, et al. ROC Investigators. Early versus later rhythm analysis in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2011; 365(9):787-797. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1010076

[35] Hallstrom AP, Ornato JP, Weisfeldt M, et al.; Public Access Defibrillation Trial Investigators. Public-access defibrillation and survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351(7):637-646. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040566

[36] Yannopoulos D, Bartos J, Raveendran G, et al. Advanced reperfusion strategies for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and refractory ventricular fibrillation (ARREST): a phase 2, single centre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020; 396(10265):1807-1816. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32338-2

[37] Hsu CH, Meurer WJ, Domeier R, et al. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (EROCA): results of a randomized feasibility trial of expedited out-of-hospital transport. Ann Emerg Med. 2021; 78(1):92-101. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2020.11.011

[38] Belohlavek J, Smalcova J, Rob D, et al.; Prague OHCA Study Group. Effect of intra-arrest transport, extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and immediate invasive assessment and treatment on functional neurologic outcome in refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022; 327(8):737-747. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.1025

[39] Suverein MM, Delnoij TSR, Lorusso R, et al. Early extracorporeal CPR for refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2023; 388(4):299-309. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2204511

[40] Nielsen N, Wetterslev J, Cronberg T, et al.; TTM Trial Investigators. Targeted temperature management at 33 ºC versus 36 ºC after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2013; 369(23):2197-2206. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1310519

[41] Lascarrou JB, Merdji H, Le Gouge A, et al. Targeted temperature management for cardiac arrest with nonshockable rhythm. N Engl J Med. 2019; 381(24):2327-2337. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1906661

[42] Dankiewicz J, Cronberg T, Lilja G, et al.; TTM2 Trial Investigators. Hypothermia versus normothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2021; 384(24):2283-2294. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2100591

[43] Carr BG, Kahn JM, Merchant RM, Kramer AA, Neumar RW. Inter-hospital variability in post-cardiac arrest mortality. Resuscitation. 2009; 80(1):30-34. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.09.001

[44] Callaway CW, Schmicker R, Kampmeyer M, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) Investigators. Receiving hospital characteristics associated with survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2010; 81(5):524-529. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.12.006

[45] Merchant RM, Topjian AA, Panchal AR, et al.; Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support, Pediatric Basic and Advanced Life Support, Neonatal Life Support, Resuscitation Education Science, and Systems of Care Writing Groups. Part 1: executive summary: 2020 American Heart Association Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_2):S337-S357. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000918

[46] Sawyer KN, Camp-Rogers TR, Kotini-Shah P, et al.; American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Genomic and Precision Medicine; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; and Stroke Council. Sudden cardiac arrest survivorship: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020; 141(12):e654-e685. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000747

[47] Wilder Schaaf KP, Artman LK, Peberdy MA, et al. Anxiety, depression, and PTSD following cardiac arrest: a systematic review of the literature. Resuscitation. 2013; 84(7):873-877. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2012.11.021

[48] Lilja G, Nilsson G, Nielsen N, et al. Anxiety and depression among out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors. Resuscitation. 2015; 97:68-75. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.09.389

[49] Kragholm K, Wissenberg M, Mortensen RN, et al. Return to work in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors: a nationwide register-based follow-up study. Circulation. 2015; 131(19):1682-1690. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.011366

[50] Cheng A, Magid DJ, Auerbach M, et al. Part 6: resuscitation education science: 2020 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_2):S551-S579. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000903

[51] Berg KM, Cheng A, Panchal AR, et al.; Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support, Pediatric Basic and Advanced Life Support, Neonatal Life Support, and Resuscitation Education Science Writing Groups. Part 7: systems of care: 2020 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_2):S580-S604. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000899

[52] Topjian AA, Raymond TT, Atkins D, et al.; Pediatric Basic and Advanced Life Support Collaborators. Part 4: pediatric basic and advanced life support: 2020 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_2):S469-S523. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000901

[53] Del Rios M, Bartos JA, Panchal AR, et al. Part 1: executive summary: 2025 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2025; 152(16_Suppl_2):S284-S312. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001372

[54] Tagami T, Hirata K, Takeshige T, et al. Implementation of the fifth link of the chain of survival concept for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2012; 126(5):589-597. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.086173

[55] Liu CT, Lai CY, Wang JC, Chung CH, Chien WC, Tsai CS. A population-based retrospective analysis of post-in-hospital cardiac arrest survival after modification of the chain of survival. J Emerg Med. 2020; 59(2):246-253. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.045

[56] Guidelines 2000 for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. 2000 Part 3: adult basic life support. The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation. 2000; 102(Suppl 8):I22-I59. doi:10.1161/circ102.suppl_1.I-22.

[57] Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care. Emergency Cardiac Care Committee and Subcommittees, American Heart Association. Part II. Adult basic life support. JAMA. 1992; 268(16):2184-2198. doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03490160054025

[58] Wik L, Steen PA. The ventilation/compression ratio influences the effectiveness of two rescuer advanced cardiac life support on a manikin. Resuscitation. 1996; 31(2):113-119. doi:10.1016/0300-9572(95)00921-3

[59] International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. 2005 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Part 2: adult basic life support. Resuscitation. 2005; 67(2-3):187-201. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.09.016

[60] Sanders AB, Kern KB, Berg RA, Hilwig RW, Heidenrich J, Ewy GA. Survival and neurologic outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation with four different chest compression-ventilation ratios. Ann Emerg Med. 2002; 40(6):553-562. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.129507

[61] Dorph E, Wik L, Stromme TA, Eriksen M, Steen PA. Oxygen delivery and return of spontaneous circulation with ventilation:compression ratio 2:30 versus chest compressions only CPR in pigs. Resuscitation. 2004; 60(3):309-318. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2003.12.001

[62] Babbs CF, Kern KB. Optimum compression to ventilation ratios in CPR under realistic, practical conditions: a physiological and mathematical analysis. Resuscitation. 2002; 54(2):147-157. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(02)00054-0

[63] Abella BS, Alvarado JP, Myklebust H, et al. Quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation during in-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA. 2005; 293(3):305-310. doi:10.1001/jama.293.3.305

[64] Wik L, Kramer-Johansen J, Myklebust H, et al. Quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA. 2005; 293(3):299-304. doi:10.1001/jama.293.3.299

[65] Abella BS, Sandbo N, Vassilatos P, et al. Chest compression rates during cardiopulmonary resuscitation are suboptimal: a prospective study during in-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2005; 111(4):428-434. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000153811.84257.59

[66] Sayre MR, Koster RW, Botha M, et al.; Adult Basic Life Support Chapter Collaborators. Part 5: adult basic life support: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2010; 122(16Suppl 2): S298-S324. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970996

[67] Kobayashi M, Fujiwara A, Morita H, et al. A manikin-based observational study on cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills at the Osaka Senri medical rally. Resuscitation. 2008; 78(3):333-339. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.03.230

[68] Christenson J, Andrusiek D, Everson-Stewart S, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Investigators. Chest compression fraction determines survival in patients with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. Circulation. 2009; 120(13):1241-1247. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.852202

[69] Ong ME, Ng FS, Anushia P, et al. Comparison of chest compression only and standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in Singapore. Resuscitation. 2008; 78(2):119-126. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.03.012

[70] Bohm K, Rosenqvist M, Herlitz J, Hollenberg J, Svensson L. Survival is similar after standard treatment and chest compression only in out-of-hospital bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 2007; 116(25):2908-2912. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.710194

[71] SOS-KANTO study group. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by bystanders with chest compression only (SOS-KANTO): an observational study. Lancet. 2007; 369(9565):920-926. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60451-6

[72] Hallstrom A, Cobb L, Johnson E, Copass M. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by chest compression alone or with mouth-to-mouth ventilation. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342(21):1546-1553. doi:10.1056/NEJM200005253422101

[73] Svensson L, Bohm K, Castren M, et al. Compression-only CPR or standard CPR in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363(5):434-442. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0908991

[74] Travers AH, Perkins GD, Berg RA, et al.; Basic Life Support Chapter Collaborators. Part 3: adult basic life support and automated external defibrillation: 2015 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2015; 132(16Suppl 1): S51-S83. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000272

[75] Marsch S, Tschan F, Semmer NK, Zobrist R, Hunziker PR, Hunziker S. ABC versus CAB for cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a prospective, randomized simulator-based trial. Swiss Med Wkly. 2013;143:w13856. doi:10.4414/smw.2013.13856

[76] Lubrano R, Cecchetti C, Bellelli E, et al. Comparison of times of intervention during pediatric CPR maneuvers using ABC and CAB sequences: a randomized trial. Resuscitation. 2012; 83(12):1473-1477. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2012.04.011

[77] Sekiguchi H, Kondo Y, Kukita I. Verification of changes in the time taken to initiate chest compressions according to modified basic life support guidelines. Am J Emerg Med. 2013; 31(8):1248-1250. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2013.02.047

[78] Hinchey PR, Myers JB, Lewis R, et al.; Capital County Research Consortium. Improved out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival after the sequential implementation of 2005 AHA guidelines for compressions, ventilations, and induced hypothermia: the Wake County experience. Ann Emerg Med. 2010; 56(4):348-357. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.01.036

[79] Olasveengen TM, Vik E, Kuzovlev A, Sunde K. Effect of implementation of new resuscitation guidelines on quality of cardiopulmonary resuscitation and survival. Resuscitation. 2009; 80(4):407-411. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.12.005

[80] Sayre MR, Cantrell SA, White LJ, Hiestand BC, Keseg DP, Koser S. Impact of the 2005 American Heart Association cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care guidelines on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2009; 13(4):469-477. doi:10.1080/10903120903144965

[81] Steinmetz J, Barnung S, Nielsen SL, Risom M, Rasmussen LS. Improved survival after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest using new guidelines. Acta Anaesth Scand. 2008; 52(7):908-913. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01657.x

[82] Cheskes S, Schmicker RH, Christenson J, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) Investigators. Perishock pause: an independent predictor of survival from out-of-hospital shockable cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2011; 124(1):58-66. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.010736

[83] Cheskes S, Schmicker RH, Verbeek PR, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) investigators. The impact of peri-shock pause on survival from out-of-hospital shockable cardiac arrest during the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium PRIMED trial. Resuscitation. 2014; 85(3):336-342. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.10.014

[84] Iwami T, Kawamura T, Hiraide A, et al. Effectiveness of bystander-initiated cardiac-only resuscitation for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2007; 116(25):2900-2907. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.723411

[85] Ashoor HM, Lillie E, Zarin W, et al.; ILCOR Basic Life Support Task Force. Effectiveness of different compression-to-ventilation methods for cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a systematic review. Resuscitation. 2017; 118:112-125. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2017.05.032

[86] Iwami T, Kitamura T, Kiyohara K, Kawamura T. Dissemination of chest compression-only cardiopulmonary resuscitation and survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2015; 132(5):415-422. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.014905

[87] Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. 2000 Part 4: the automated external defibrillator: key link in the chain of survival. The American Heart Association in Collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation. 2000; 102(Suppl 8):I60-I76. doi:10.1161/circ102.suppl_1.I-60.

[88] The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Guidelines 2000 for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 6: advanced cardiovascular life support: section 2: defibrillation. Circulation. 2000; 102(Suppl 8):I90-I94. doi:10.1161/circ102.suppl_1.I-90.

[89] Kerber RE, Grayzel J, Hoyt R, Marcus M, Kennedy J. Transthoracic resistance in human defibrillation. Influence of body weight, chest size, serial shocks, paddle size and paddle contact pressure. Circulation. 1981; 63(3):676-682. doi:10.1161/01.cir.63.3.676

[90] International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. 2005 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Part 3: defibrillation. Resuscitation. 2005; 67(2-3):203-211. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.09.017

[91] Morrison LJ, Dorian P, Long J, et al. Steering Committee,; Central Validation Committee, Safety and Efficacy Committee. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest rectilinear biphasic to monophasic damped sine defibrillation waveforms with advanced life support intervention trial (ORBIT). Resuscitation. 2005; 66(2):149-157. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.11.031

[92] van Alem AP, Chapman FW, Lank P, Hart AA, Koster RW. A prospective, randomised and blinded comparison of first shock success of monophasic and biphasic waveforms in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2003; 58(1):17-24. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(03)00106-0

[93] Berg RA, Hilwig RW, Kern KB, Sanders AB, Xavier LC, Ewy GA. Automated external defibrillation versus manual defibrillation for prolonged ventricular fibrillation: lethal delays of chest compressions before and after countershocks. Ann Emerg Med. 2003; 42(4):458-467. doi:10.1067/s0196-0644(03)00525-0

[94] Cobb LA, Fahrenbruch CE, Walsh TR, et al. Influence of cardiopulmonary resuscitation prior to defibrillation in patients with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. JAMA. 1999; 281(13):1182-1188. doi:10.1001/jama.281.13.1182

[95] Wik L, Hansen TB, Fylling F, et al. Delaying defibrillation to give basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation to patients with out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003; 289(11):1389-1395. doi:10.1001/jama.289.11.1389

[96] Berg RA, Hilwig RW, Kern KB, Ewy GA. Precountershock cardiopulmonary resuscitation improves ventricular fibrillation median frequency and myocardial readiness for successful defibrillation from prolonged ventricular fibrillation: a randomized, controlled swine study. Ann Emerg Med. 2002; 40(6):563-570. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.129866

[97] Ma MH, Chiang WC, Ko PC, et al. A randomized trial of compression first or analyze first strategies in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: results from an Asian community. Resuscitation. 2012; 83(7):806-812. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2012.01.009

[98] Baker PW, Conway J, Cotton C, et al.; Clinical Investigators. Defibrillation or cardiopulmonary resuscitation first for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrests found by paramedics to be in ventricular fibrillation? A randomised control trial. Resuscitation. 2008; 79(3):424-431. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.07.017

[99] Jacobs IG, Finn JC, Oxer HF, Jelinek GA. CPR before defibrillation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a randomized trial. Emerg Med Australas. 2005; 17(1):39-45. doi:10.1111/j.1742-6723.2005.00694.x

[100] Kellum MJ, Kennedy KW, Ewy GA. Cardiocerebral resuscitation improves survival of patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am J Med. 2006; 119(4):335-340. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.11.014

[101] Bobrow BJ, Clark LL, Ewy GA, et al. Minimally interrupted cardiac resuscitation by emergency medical services for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA. 2008; 299(10):1158-1165. doi:10.1001/jama.299.10.1158

[102] Rea TD, Helbock M, Perry S, et al. Increasing use of cardiopulmonary resuscitation during out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation arrest: survival implications of guideline changes. Circulation. 2006; 114(25):2760-2765. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.106.654715

[103] Olasveengen TM, Mancini ME, Perkins GD, et al. Adult basic life support: 2020 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_1):S41-S91. doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000000892

[104] Berdowski J, Tijssen JG, Koster RW. Chest compressions cause recurrence of ventricular fibrillation after the first successful conversion by defibrillation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010; 3(1):72-78. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.109.902114

[105] Beesems SG, Berdowski J, Hulleman M, Blom MT, Tijssen JG, Koster RW. Minimizing pre- and post-shock pauses during the use of an automatic external defibrillator by two different voice prompt protocols. A randomized controlled trial of a bundle of measures. Resuscitation. 2016; 106:1-6. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.06.009

[106] Fitzgerald KR, Babbs CF, Frissora HA, Davis RW, Silver DI. Cardiac output during cardiopulmonary resuscitation at various compression rates and durations. Am J Physiol. 1981; 241(3):H442-H448. doi:10.1152/ajpheart1981.241.3.H442.

[107] Babbs CF, Thelander K. Theoretically optimal duty cycles for chest and abdominal compression during external cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Acad Emerg Med. 1995; 2(8):698-707. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1995.tb03621.x

[108] Maier GW, Tyson GS Jr, Olsen CO, et al. The physiology of external cardiac massage: high-impulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 1984; 70(1):86-101. doi:10.1161/01.cir.70.1.86

[109] Maier GW, Newton JR Jr, Wolfe JA, et al. The influence of manual chest compression rate on hemodynamic support during cardiac arrest: high-impulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 1986;746 Pt 2:IV51-IV59.

[110] Feneley MP, Maier GW, Kern KB, et al. Influence of compression rate on initial success of resuscitation and 24 hour survival after prolonged manual cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs. Circulation. 1988; 77(1):240-250. doi:10.1161/01.cir.77.1.240

[111] Wolfe JA, Maier GW, Newton JR Jr, et al. Physiologic determinants of coronary blood flow during external cardiac massage. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1988; 95(3):523-532.

[112] Sanders AB, Kern KB, Fonken S, Otto CW, Ewy GA. The role of bicarbonate and fluid loading in improving resuscitation from prolonged cardiac arrest with rapid manual chest compression CPR. Ann Emerg Med. 1990; 19(1):1-7. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(05)82129-8

[113] Swenson RD, Weaver WD, Niskanen RA, Martin J, Dahlberg S. Hemodynamics in humans during conventional and experimental methods of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 1988; 78(3):630-639. doi:10.1161/01.cir.78.3.630

[114] Kern KB, Sanders AB, Raife J, Milander MM, Otto CW, Ewy GA. A study of chest compression rates during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in humans. The importance of rate-directed chest compressions. Arch Intern Med. 1992; 152(1):145-149. doi:10.1001/archinte.1992.00400130153020

[115] Swart GL, Mateer JR, DeBehnke DJ, Jameson SJ, Osborn JL. The effect of compression duration on hemodynamics during mechanical high-impulse CPR. Acad Emerg Med. 1994; 1(5):430-437. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1994.tb02522.x

[116] Tucker KJ, Khan J, Idris A, Savitt MA. The biphasic mechanism of blood flow during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a physiologic comparison of active compression-decompression and high-impulse manual external cardiac massage. Ann Emerg Med. 1994; 24(5):895-906. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(54)00229-6

[117] Ornato JP, Gonzalez ER, Garnett AR, Levine RL, McClung BK. Effect of cardiopulmonary resuscitation compression rate on end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration and arterial pressure in man. Crit Care Med. 1988; 16(3):241-245. doi:10.1097/00003246-198803000-00007

[118] Kern KB, Carter AB, Showen RL, et al. Twenty-four hour survival in a canine model of cardiac arrest comparing three methods of manual cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986; 7(4):859-867. doi:10.1016/s0735-1097(86)80348-5

[119] Babbs CF, Voorhees WD, Fitzgerald KR, Holmes HR, Geddes LA. Relationship of blood pressure and flow during CPR to chest compression amplitude: evidence for an effective compression threshold. Ann Emerg Med. 1983; 12(9):527-532. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(83)80290-x

[120] Bellamy RF, DeGuzman LR, Pedersen DC. Coronary blood flow during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in swine. Circulation. 1984; 69(1):174-180. doi:10.1161/01.cir.69.1.174

[121] Yannopoulos D, McKnite S, Aufderheide TP, et al. Effects of incomplete chest wall decompression during cardiopulmonary resuscitation on coronary and cerebral perfusion pressures in a porcine model of cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2005; 64(3):363-372. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.10.009

[122] Edelson DP, Abella BS, Kramer-Johansen J, et al. Effects of compression depth and pre-shock pauses predict defibrillation failure during cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2006; 71(2):137-145. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.04.008

[123] Kramer-Johansen J, Myklebust H, Wik L, et al. Quality of out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation with real time automated feedback: a prospective interventional study. Resuscitation. 2006; 71(3):283-292. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.05.011

[124] Edelson DP, Litzinger B, Arora V, et al. Improving in-hospital cardiac arrest process and outcomes with performance debriefing. Arch Intern Med. 2008; 168(10):1063-1069. doi:10.1001/archinte.168.10.1063

[125] Babbs CF, Kemeny AE, Quan W, Freeman G. A new paradigm for human resuscitation research using intelligent devices. Resuscitation. 2008; 77(3):306-315. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.12.018

[126] Idris AH, Guffey D, Pepe PE, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Investigators. Chest compression rates and survival following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med. 2015; 43(4):840-848. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000824

[127] Idris AH, Guffey D, Aufderheide TP, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC) Investigators. Relationship between chest compression rates and outcomes from cardiac arrest. Circulation. 2012; 125(24):3004-3012. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.059535

[128] Hellevuo H, Sainio M, Nevalainen R, et al. Deeper chest compression - more complications for cardiac arrest patients? Resuscitation. 2013; 84(6):760-765. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.02.015

[129] Stiell IG, Brown SP, Nichol G, et al.; Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Investigators. What is the optimal chest compression depth during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resuscitation of adult patients? Circulation. 2014; 130(22):1962-1970. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.008671

[130] Considine J, Gazmuri RJ, Perkins GD, et al. Chest compression components (rate, depth, chest wall recoil and leaning): a scoping review. Resuscitation. 2020; 146:188-202. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2019.08.042

[131] Hwang SO, Cha KC, Kim K, et al. A randomized controlled trial of compression rates during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J Korean Med Sci. 2016; 31(9):1491-1498. doi:10.3346/jkms.2016.31.9.1491

[132] Dorges V, Ocker H, Hagelberg S, Wenzel V, Idris AH, Schmucker P. Smaller tidal volumes with room-air are not sufficient to ensure adequate oxygenation during bag-valve-mask ventilation. Resuscitation. 2000; 44(1):37-41. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(99)00161-6

[133] Wenzel V, Keller C, Idris AH, Dorges V, Lindner KH, Brimacombe JR. Effects of smaller tidal volumes during basic life support ventilation in patients with respiratory arrest: good ventilation, less risk? Resuscitation. 1999; 43(1):25-29. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(99)00118-5

[134] Dorges V, Ocker H, Hagelberg S, Wenzel V, Schmucker P. Optimisation of tidal volumes given with self-inflatable bags without additional oxygen. Resuscitation. 2000; 43(3):195-199. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(99)00148-3

[135] von Goedecke A, Bowden K, Wenzel V, Keller C, Gabrielli A. Effects of decreasing inspiratory times during simulated bag-valve-mask ventilation. Resuscitation. 2005; 64(3):321-325. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.09.003

[136] von Goedecke A, Bowden K, Keller C, Voelckel WG, Jeske HC, Wenzel V. Decreased inspiratory time during ventilation of an unprotected airway. Effect on stomach inflation and lung ventilation in a bench model. Anaesthesist. 2005; 54(2):117-122. doi:10.1007/s00101-004-0800-3

[137] von Goedecke A, Paal P, Keller C, et al. Ventilation of an unprotected airway: evaluation of a new peak-inspiratory-flow and airway-pressure-limiting bag-valve-mask. Anaesthesist. 2006; 55(6):629-634. doi:10.1007/s00101-006-1013-8

[138] Eisenberg MS, Copass MK, Hallstrom AP, et al. Treatment of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests with rapid defibrillation by emergency medical technicians. N Engl J Med. 1980; 302(25):1379-1383. doi:10.1056/NEJM198006193022502

[139] Bardy GH, Gliner BE, Kudenchuk PJ, et al. Truncated biphasic pulses for transthoracic defibrillation. Circulation. 1995; 91(6):1768-1774. doi:10.1161/01.cir.91.6.1768

[140] Bardy GH, Marchlinski FE, Sharma AD, et al. Multicenter comparison of truncated biphasic shocks and standard damped sine wave monophasic shocks for transthoracic ventricular defibrillation. Transthoracic Investigators. Circulation. 1996; 94(10):2507-2514. doi:10.1161/01.cir.94.10.2507

[141] Poole JE, White RD, Kanz KG, et al. ow-energy impedance-compensating biphasic waveforms terminate ventricular fibrillation at high rates in victims of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. LIFE Investigators. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1997; 8(12):1373-1385. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8167.1997.tb01034.x

[142] Gundry JW, Comess KA, DeRook FA, Jorgenson D, Bardy GH. Comparison of naive sixth-grade children with trained professionals in the use of an automated external defibrillator. Circulation. 1999; 100(16):1703-1707. doi:10.1161/01.cir.100.16.1703

[143] Valenzuela TD, Roe DJ, Nichol G, Clark LL, Spaite DW, Hardman RG. Outcomes of rapid defibrillation by security officers after cardiac arrest in casinos. N Engl J Med. 2000; 343(17):1206-1209. doi:10.1056/NEJM200010263431701

[144] O’Rourke MF, Donaldson E, Geddes JS. An airline cardiac arrest program. Circulation. 1997; 96(9):2849-2853. doi:10.1161/01.cir.96.9.2849

[145] Sunde K, Eftestol T, Askenberg C, Steen PA. Quality assessment of defibrillation and advanced life support using data from the medical control module of the defibrillator. Resuscitation. 1999; 41(3):237-247. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(99)00059-3

[146] Macdonald RD, Swanson JM, Mottley JL, Weinstein C. Performance and error analysis of automated external defibrillator use in the out-of-hospital setting. Ann Emerg Med. 2001; 38(3):262-267. doi:10.1067/mem.2001.117953

[147] Zafari AM, Zarter SK, Heggen V, et al. A program encouraging early defibrillation results in improved in-hospital resuscitation efficacy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44(4):846-852. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2004.04.054

[148] Cusnir H, Tongia R, Sheka KP, et al. In hospital cardiac arrest: a role for automatic defibrillation. Resuscitation. 2004; 63(2):183-188. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.05.012

[149] Schneider T, Martens PR, Paschen H, et al. Multicenter, randomized, controlled trial of 150-J biphasic shocks compared with 200- to 360-J monophasic shocks in the resuscitation of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest victims. Optimized Response to Cardiac Arrest (ORCA) Investigators. Circulation. 2000; 102(15):1780-1787. doi:10.1161/01.cir.102.15.1780

[150] Faddy SC, Powell J, Craig JC. Biphasic and monophasic shocks for transthoracic defibrillation: a meta analysis of randomised controlled trials. Resuscitation. 2003; 58(1):9-16. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(03)00077-7

[151] Deakin CD, McLaren RM, Petley GW, Clewlow F, Dalrymple-Hay MJ. A comparison of transthoracic impedance using standard defibrillation paddles and self-adhesive defibrillation pads. Resuscitation. 1998; 39(1-2):43-46. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(98)00117-8

[152] Kirchhof P, Eckardt L, Loh P, et al. Anterior-posterior versus anterior-lateral electrode positions for external cardioversion of atrial fibrillation: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2002; 360(9342):1275-1279. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)11315-8

[153] Holmberg MJ, Vognsen M, Andersen MS, Donnino MW, Andersen LW. Bystander automated external defibrillator use and clinical outcomes after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2017; 120:77-87. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2017.09.003

[154] Baekgaard JS, Viereck S, Moller TP, Ersboll AK, Lippert F, Folke F. The effects of public access defibrillation on survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review of observational studies. Circulation. 2017; 136(10):954-965. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029067

[155] Bray JE, Smyth MA, Perkins GD, et al.; Basic Life Support Task Force Collaborators. Basic life support: 2025 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation consensus on science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2025; 152(16_Suppl_1):S34-S71. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001364

[156] Jakobsen LK, Kjaerulf V, Bray J, Olasveengen TM, Folke F; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation Basic Life Support Task Force. Drones delivering automated external defibrillators for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a scoping review. Resusc Plus. 2024; 21:100841. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100841

[157] Oonyu L, Perkins GD, Smith CM, Vaillancourt C, Olasveengen TM, Bray JE; ILCOR BLS Task Force. The impact of locked cabinets for automated external defibrillators (AEDs) on cardiac arrest and AED outcomes: a scoping review. Resusc Plus. 2024; 20:100791. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100791

[158] Heward A, Damiani M, Hartley-Sharpe C. Does the use of the advanced medical priority dispatch system affect cardiac arrest detection?. Emerg Med J. 2004; 21(1):115-118. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.006940

[159] Flynn J, Archer F, Morgans A. Sensitivity and specificity of the medical priority dispatch system in detecting cardiac arrest emergency calls in Melbourne. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2006; 21(2):72-76. doi:10.1017/s1049023x00003381

[160] Roppolo LP, Westfall A, Pepe PE, et al. Dispatcher assessments for agonal breathing improve detection of cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2009; 80(7):769-772. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.04.013

[161] Hupfl M, Selig HF, Nagele P. Chest-compression-only versus standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010; 376(9752):1552-1557. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61454-7

[162] Nikolaou N, Dainty KN, Couper K, Morley P, Tijssen J, Vaillancourt C; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation’s (ILCOR) Basic Life Support and Pediatric Task Forces. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of dispatcher-assisted CPR on outcomes from sudden cardiac arrest in adults and children. Resuscitation. 2019; 138:82-105. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2019.02.035

[163] Soar J, Maconochie I, Wyckoff MH, et al. 2019 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations: summary from the basic life support; advanced life support; pediatric life support; neonatal life support; education, implementation, and teams; and first aid task forces. Circulation. 2019; 140(24):e826-e880. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000734

[164] Imbriaco G, Ramacciati N. International trends and key contributors in dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation research: a 25-year bibliometric analysis. Emerg Crit Care Med. 2025; 5(2):76-82. doi:10.1097/ec9.0000000000000150

[165] International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. 2005 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Part 4: advanced life support. Resuscitation. 2005; 67(2-3):213-247. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.09.018

[166] Morrison LJ, Deakin CD, Morley PT, et al.; Advanced Life Support Chapter Collaborators. Part 8: advanced life support: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2010; 122(16Suppl 2): S345-S421. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971051

[167] Callaway CW, Soar J, Aibiki M, et al.; Advanced Life Support Chapter Collaborators. Part 4: advanced life support: 2015 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2015; 132(16Suppl 1): S84-145. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000273

[168] Holmberg MJ, Geri G, Wiberg S, et al.; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation’s (ILCOR) Advanced Life Support and Pediatric Task Forces. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for cardiac arrest: a systematic review. Resuscitation. 2018; 131:91-100. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2018.07.029

[169] Holmberg MJ, Granfeldt A, Guerguerian AM, et al. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for cardiac arrest: an updated systematic review. Resuscitation. 2023; 182:109665. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2022.12.003

[170] Greif R, Bray JE, Djarv T, et al. 2024 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations: summary from the basic life support; advanced life support; pediatric life support; neonatal life support; education, implementation, and teams; and first aid task forces. Circulation. 2024; 150(24):e580-e687. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001288

[171] Drennan IR, Berg KM, Bottiger BW, et al.; Advanced Life Support Task Force Collaborators. Advanced life support: 2025 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation consensus on science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2025; 152(16_Suppl_1):S72-S115. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001360

[172] Guidelines 2000 for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 6: advanced cardiovascular life support: section 8: postresuscitation care. The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation. 2000; 102(Suppl 8):I166-I171. doi:10.1161/circ102.suppl_1.I-166.

[173] Nolan JP, Morley PT, Vanden Hoek TL, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: an advisory statement by the advanced life support task force of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation. 2003; 108(1):118-121. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000079019.02601.90

[174] Hachimi-Idrissi S, Corne L, Ebinger G, Michotte Y, Huyghens L. Mild hypothermia induced by a helmet device: a clinical feasibility study. Resuscitation. 2001; 51(3):275-281. doi:10.1016/s0300-9572(01)00412-9

[175] Bernard SA, Jones BM, Horne MK. Clinical trial of induced hypothermia in comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Ann Emerg Med. 1997; 30(2):146-153. doi:10.1016/s0196-0644(97)70133-1

[176] Donnino MW, Andersen LW, Berg KM, et al.; ILCOR ALS Task Force. Temperature management after cardiac arrest: an advisory statement by the advanced life support task force of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation and the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee and the Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation. Circulation. 2015; 132(25):2448-2456. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000313

[177] Berg KM, Soar J, Andersen LW, et al.; Adult Advanced Life Support Collaborators. Adult advanced life support: 2020 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation. 2020; 142(16_Suppl_1):S92-S139. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000893

[178] Granfeldt A, Holmberg MJ, Nolan JP, Soar J, Andersen LW; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) Advanced Life Support Task Force. Targeted temperature management in adult cardiac arrest: systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2021; 167:160-172. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2021.08.040

[179] Wyckoff MH, Greif R, Morley PT, et al. Collaborators.; 2022 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations: summary from the basic life support; advanced life support; pediatric life support; neonatal life support; education, implementation, and teams; and first aid task forces. Circulation. 2022; 146(25):e483-e557. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001095

[180] Granfeldt A, Holmberg MJ, Nolan JP, Soar J, Andersen LW; International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation ILCOR Advanced Life Support Task Force. Temperature control after adult cardiac arrest: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2023; 191:109928. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2023.109928

[181] Junedahl E, Lundgren P, Andersson E, et al. The evidence supporting AHA guidelines on adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). PLoS One. 2024; 19(12):e0309241. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0309241

[182] Rao SV, O’Donoghue ML, Ruel M, et al. 2025 ACC/AHA/ACEP/NAEMSP/SCAI Guideline for the management of patients with acute coronary syndromes: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2025; 151(13):e771-e862. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001309

[183] Sinha SS, Sukul D, Lazarus JJ, et al. Identifying important gaps in randomized controlled trials of adult cardiac arrest treatments: a systematic review of the published literature. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2016; 9(6):749-756. doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.116.002916

[184] Gong W, Yan Y, Wang X, et al.; CCC-ACS Investigators. Risk factors for in-hospital cardiac arrest in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022; 80(19):1788-1798. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2022.08.797

[185] Schnaubelt S, Garg R, Atiq H, et al.; Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in Low-Resource Settings Group. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in low-resource settings: a statement by the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation, supported by the AFEM, EUSEM, IFEM, and IFRC. Lancet Glob Health. 2023; 11(9):e1444-e1453. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00302-9

[186] Einav S, Cortegiani A, Marcus EL. Cardiac arrest in older adult patients. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2021; 34(1):40-47. doi:10.1097/ACO.0000000000000942

[187] Katzenschlager S, Elshaer A, Metelmann B, et al. Top 5 barriers in cardiac arrest research as perceived by international early career researchers - a consensus study. Resusc Plus. 2024; 18:100608. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100608

[188] Krishna AA, Kado S, Dubey A, Grant C, Kado J. Clinical practice guidelines: their utility, dissemination and monitoring at Colonial War Memorial Hospital: a mixed methods study from Fiji. Intern Med J. 2024; 54(7):1174-1182. doi:10.1111/imj.16349

[189] Mersha AT, Gebre Egzi AHK, Tawuye HY, Endalew NS. Factors associated with knowledge and attitude towards adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation among healthcare professionals at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia: an institutional-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2020; 10(9):e037416. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037416

[190] Mollo A, Beck S, Degel A, Greif R, Breckwoldt J. Kids save lives: who should train schoolchildren in resuscitation? A systematic review. Resusc Plus. 2024; 20:100755. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100755

[191] An Y, Wei Y, Wang D, Ma B, Wang H, Cao Q. Construction and evaluation of an integrated “Hospital-Community-Family” public cardiopulmonary resuscitation training system. Front Public Health. 2025; 13:1541177. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1541177

[192] Zheng W, Zheng J, Wang C, et al.; BASIC-OHCA Coordinators and Investigators. The development history, current state, challenges, and future directions of the BASIC-OHCA registry in China: a narrative review. Resusc Plus. 2024; 18:100588. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100588

[193] Buaprasert P, Al-Araji R, Rajdev M, Vellano K, J Carr M, McNally B. The past, present, and future of the Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival (CARES). Resusc Plus. 2024; 18:100624. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2024.100624

[194] Jerkeman M, Sultanian P, Lundgren P, et al. Trends in survival after cardiac arrest: a Swedish nationwide study over 30 years. Eur Heart J. 2022; 43(46):4817-4829. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehac414

[195] Yagi T, Nagao K, Yonemoto N, et al.; Japanese Circulation Society with Resuscitation Science Study (JCS‐ReSS) Group. Outcomes of patients from all-Japan Utstein registry managed by 2015 cardiopulmonary resuscitation guidelines for nonshockable out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. J Am Heart Assoc. 2026; 15(1):e044171. doi:10.1161/JAHA.125.044171

[196] Evans E, Swanson MB, Mohr N, et al.; American Heart Association’s Get With The Guidelines-Resuscitation investigators. Epinephrine before defibrillation in patients with shockable in-hospital cardiac arrest: propensity matched analysis. BMJ. 2021; 375:e066534. doi:10.1136/bmj-2021-066534

[197] Zive DM, Schmicker R, Daya M, et al.; ROC Investigators. Survival and variability over time from out of hospital cardiac arrest across large geographically diverse communities participating in the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium. Resuscitation. 2018; 131:74-82. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2018.07.023

[198] Haas NL, Coute RA, Hsu CH, Cranford JA, Neumar RW. Descriptive analysis of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest-an ELSO registry study. Resuscitation. 2017; 119:56-62. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2017.08.003

[199] Kiguchi T, Okubo M, Nishiyama C, et al. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest across the world: first report from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). Resuscitation. 2020; 152:39-49. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2020.02.044

[200] Bak MAR, Blom MT, Tan HL, Willems DL. Ethical aspects of sudden cardiac arrest research using observational data: a narrative review. Crit Care. 2018; 22(1):212. doi:10.1186/s13054-018-2153-3

[201] Chan PS, McNally B, Chang A, et al. Long-term outcomes for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in elderly patients: an analysis of cardiac arrest registry to enhance survival data linked to medicare files. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2022; 15(10):e009042. doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.122.009042

[202] Chikatimalla R, Trivedi YV, Chigurupati HD, et al. From prediction to precision: artificial intelligence and emerging technologies in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2025; 92:97-107. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2025.09.004

[203] Kim T, Suh GJ, Kim KS, et al. Development of artificial intelligence-driven biosignal-sensitive cardiopulmonary resuscitation robot. Resuscitation. 2024; 202:110354. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2024.110354

[204] Semeraro F, Schnaubelt S, Malta Hansen C, Bignami EG, Piazza O, Monsieurs KG. Cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the next decade:predicting and shaping the impact of technological innovations. Resuscitation. 2024; 200:110250. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2024.110250

[205] de Raad T, Chakroun-Walha O, Leslie B, Greif R, Nabecker S. Artificial Intelligence in cardiopulmonary resuscitation training - a scoping review. Resusc Plus. 2025; 27:101175. doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2025.101175

[206] Parizad R, Hatwal J, Javanshir E, Batta A, Mohan B. Artificial intelligence in cardiopulmonary resuscitation: revolutionizing resuscitation through precision and prediction - a narrative review. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2025; 21:847-857. doi:10.2147/VHRM.S551731