Bamboo as a Carbon Sink: Belowground Processes Governing Long-Term Carbon Stabilization and Regulation

Abstract

Against the backdrop of global mitigation targets and carbon-neutrality commitments, the identification, quantification, and enhancement of terrestrial carbon sinks have become a central challenge in ecology and resource management. Bamboo, a woody grass characterized by rapid growth and strong regenerative capacity, is often assessed through aboveground biomass production and harvest cycles. However, accumulating evidence demonstrates that the persistence of bamboo carbon sinks depends largely on belowground pathways: the form and tempo of carbon inputs to soils, microbial processing and transformation of labile substrates, and the extent to which carbon is physically and chemically protected and thereby retained over long timescales. The extensive rhizome–root network in bamboo forests not only supports clonal expansion and resource storage but also continuously delivers carbon to soils and reshapes rhizosphere environments, microbial communities, soil structure, and mineral association capacity, collectively governing the formation and stability of soil organic carbon (SOC). Current studies suggest that belowground sequestration in bamboo forests is primarily contributed by microbial necromass carbon (MRC), phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC), and root-derived carbon, including coarse-root residues and rhizodeposition. Specifically, MRC contributes 28.7%–42.6% of SOC, far exceeding plant-derived carbon (8.88%–20.8%); PhytOC can persist for 433–1018 years; and root-derived carbon exhibits a stability coefficient 1.5–3.7 times higher than aboveground residues. In this synthesis, we establish a complete mechanistic cascade spanning carbon inputs, microbial transformation, and physicochemical protection that ultimately underpins long-term SOC persistence, and we frame these processes within an aboveground–belowground coupled framework wherein aboveground community attributes regulate the magnitude, quality, and tempo of soil inputs while belowground biotic interactions largely determine stabilization efficiency and long-term sequestration capacity. We further discuss management-relevant pathways and key research priorities to support accurate accounting and sustainable enhancement of bamboo carbon sinks.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Bamboo forests / Belowground carbon sequestration / Microbial necromass carbon / Phytolith-occluded carbon / Rhizodeposition / Microbial carbon pump

Highlight

	● A coupled aboveground–belowground framework guides bamboo carbon sink management.
	● MRC accounts for 28.7%–42.6% of bamboo SOC, exceeding plant-derived carbon.
	● Bamboo PhytOC has a long residence time of 433–1018 years in soil.
	● Root-derived carbon is 1.5–3.7 times more stable than aboveground residues.

1 Introduction: Long-Term Carbon Sinks in Bamboo Forests Depend Primarily on Belowground Processes Rather Than Aboveground Productivity Alone

Bamboo forests are frequently described as high-productivity, fast-turnover systems. Bamboo culms achieve exceptional growth rates over short developmental windows, aboveground tissues renew frequently, and harvest or silvicultural interventions are common in many regions, resulting in pronounced temporal fluctuations of aboveground carbon pools [1]. These characteristics have historically encouraged carbon-sink evaluations centered on aboveground biomass or annual productivity. Nevertheless, high aboveground throughput does not necessarily translate into a durable sink. From the perspective of persistence, the decisive question is whether fixed carbon enters soils in stabilized forms and remains there over long time horizons. A substantial body of soil science has shown that long-term carbon storage is largely supported by stable soil pools governed jointly by belowground inputs, microbial processing, and physicochemical protection [2–4].

Bamboo possesses a pronounced belowground advantage in both structure and function. Its rhizome–root network forms a widespread clonal system that underpins resource storage and spatial expansion while continuously supplying carbon to soils and shaping rhizosphere processes. Root residues and rhizodeposition provide substrates that fuel microbial activity and modify community composition and metabolic pathways, thereby influencing the formation of microbial residues and extracellular products that support soil aggregation and stabilization. In addition, bamboo’s strong silicon uptake leads to phytolith formation and phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC), a pool with long residence times on centennial to millennial scales [5,6].

Accordingly, understanding bamboo carbon sinks requires integrating two complementary perspectives. At the process scale, carbon follows a continuous chain from rhizome/root inputs and rhizodeposition into microbial transformation [7], aggregate-based protection, mineral association, and ultimately longer residence in mineral-associated organic matter (MAOC) [8], while PhytOC contributes a parallel long-lived pool (Figs. 1 and 2). At the system drivers, aboveground community structure and productivity shape the magnitude, quality, and tempo of carbon entering soil, whereas underground community structure and biotic interactions largely determine the efficiency with which inputs are transformed and stabilized, jointly producing a coupled pattern of relatively rapid aboveground cycling but more persistent belowground retention (Fig. 3). This synthesis is essential for both accurate accounting and actionable management. The distinctive contribution of this review is that it explicitly organizes bamboo belowground sequestration into a continuous mechanistic chain from carbon input to microbial transformation, physicochemical protection, and long-term persistence. In doing so, we move beyond a component-based description of root-derived carbon, microbial necromass, mineral-associated organic carbon, and PhytOC, and instead clarify how these pathways interact to determine the durability of bamboo carbon sinks.

2 Three Major Components of Bamboo Belowground Sequestration

Before discussing the major components of bamboo belowground sequestration, several key concepts should be clarified. Microbial necromass carbon (MRC) refers to carbon retained in dead microbial biomass and microbial residues, which can contribute substantially to stable SOC after association with minerals or protection within aggregates [9,10]. Phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC) is carbon physically trapped within silica phytoliths formed by plants and is generally considered a long-residence carbon pool [11]. Root-derived carbon includes carbon inputs from root and rhizome residues as well as rhizodeposition, such as dissolved organic carbon, mucilage, and sloughed root cells released into the rhizosphere. Particulate organic carbon (POC) mainly represents relatively less processed plant- or microbe-derived organic particles [12], whereas mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) refers to organic carbon bound to mineral surfaces and is usually more persistent [13]. The microbial carbon pump (MCP) describes the process by which labile organic inputs are assimilated by microorganisms, transformed into microbial biomass and residues, and subsequently stabilized as persistent SOC [14].

Belowground sequestration in bamboo forests is not simply a change in total SOC, but a combined shift in carbon source composition and stabilization form. Distinguishing contributions from microbial necromass, PhytOC, and root-derived carbon clarifies why bamboo systems can maintain substantial long-term soil carbon despite rapid aboveground turnover.

Microbial necromass carbon (MRC) often constitutes a large fraction of SOC in bamboo soils. Available estimates from moso bamboo systems indicate that MRC may contribute 28.7%–42.6% of SOC, exceeding plant-derived carbon estimates of 8.88%–20.8%. However, these ranges should not be treated as universal averages for all bamboo forests, because the relative contributions of microbial- and plant-derived carbon may vary substantially with bamboo species, soil depth, stand age, management intensity, soil mineralogy, and regional climatic conditions [15]. This contrast implies that persistent SOC formation in bamboo forests is strongly mediated by microbial processing rather than direct accumulation of undecomposed plant residues. Microbial residues are more prone to mineral association and can be further protected within clay-mineral matrices and aggregates, reducing their susceptibility to decomposition [9,14,16]. This aligns with the microbial carbon pump (MCP) concept, which emphasizes the fraction of labile inputs converted into microbial residues and subsequently protected in stable pools [4].

PhytOC represents another, bamboo-specific long-lived pathway. Carbon occluded in phytolith silica becomes less accessible to microbial decomposition, and bamboo phytolith studies have estimated PhytOC persistence times of 433–1018 years [5]. This residence-time estimate should also be interpreted in relation to bamboo species, soil depth, parent material, silicon availability, and environmental conditions considered in the original studies. Although its mass fraction may be smaller than bulk SOC pools, its time scale makes it disproportionately relevant for long-term sink accounting, particularly when deep soils and multi-century horizons are considered [17].

Root-derived carbon connects the input side with stabilization outcomes. It includes coarse-root residues and rhizodeposition, and rhizodeposition can account for 65% of coarse-root carbon [18], highlighting its substantial role in belowground carbon supply. Root-derived carbon is often preferentially stabilized, with stability coefficients 1.5–3.7 times higher than aboveground residues [19]. Mechanistically, this preferential stabilization is consistent with the proximity of rhizosphere inputs to mineral surfaces, enhanced microbial processing and residue formation, and greater probability of entering aggregate- and mineral-protected pools (Figs. 1 and 2). In bamboo forests, active fine-root turnover and rhizodeposition therefore influence both the magnitude of carbon inputs and the efficiency with which those inputs are routed into stable SOC. However, high rhizodeposition may also induce rhizosphere priming effects by stimulating microbial activity and the decomposition of native SOC, potentially offsetting part of the carbon gains from new belowground inputs [20]. This offset may occur through increased microbial demand for nutrients, enhanced enzyme production, and co-metabolism of existing organic matter [21]. Therefore, the net contribution of rhizodeposition to SOC accrual depends not only on input quantity and stabilization efficiency, but also on the balance between new carbon incorporation and priming-induced SOC loss.

3 A Continuous Chain from Inputs to Persistence

A mechanistic chain perspective unifies explanations of “why carbon accumulates,” “how it becomes stable,” and “where management can intervene.” In bamboo soils, carbon enters through rhizome/root inputs and rhizodeposition, is transformed through microbial assimilation and residue formation, and is then protected through aggregation and mineral association, promoting a shift from particulate organic carbon (POC) toward mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) with longer residence times. In parallel, PhytOC contributes a distinct long-lived pool (Fig. 2). Each step can represent a bottleneck or leverage point that explains variability across bamboo systems.

At the input stage, root residues and rhizodeposition jointly supply substrates while shaping rhizosphere microenvironments. Rhizodeposition comprises dissolved organic carbon and small metabolites that are rapidly utilized by microbes, sustaining high activity in the rhizosphere. Evidence that rhizodeposition can comprise 65% of coarse-root carbon underscores that it is not a minor component of belowground carbon supply [18]. In moso bamboo, fine-root traits are tightly linked to SOC, with specific root length and root length density positively correlated with soil carbon storage; fine-root turnover can contribute more than 40% of total belowground inputs [22]. Importantly, unmanaged moso bamboo forests show that microbial-derived carbon can contribute 42.6% of SOC, exceeding plant-derived carbon (20.8%), indicating that inputs are effectively routed through microbial transformation into stabilizable forms rather than merely accumulating as unprocessed litter [23].

Microbial transformation is central to stable SOC formation. MCP theory emphasizes that long-term SOC depends on the fraction of labile inputs converted into microbial biomass and residues and then protected in stable pools [4]. Direct evidence supports microbial formation of soil organic matter and highlights ecophysiological controls [14], quantitative contributions of necromass [9], and environmental and microbial controls on necromass recycling and stabilization [10]. In bamboo forests, management and environment can strongly modulate necromass accumulation. Fine-root traits can shape the distribution of carbon-transforming microbial taxa and enhance MCP efficiency, contributing to markedly higher MRC under unmanaged conditions relative to intensive management [24]. This effect may occur because higher fine-root biomass, root length density, specific root length, and turnover increase labile rhizodeposit and residue inputs, which provide substrates for microbial assimilation, promote microbial residue formation, and increase the likelihood that root-derived carbon enters aggregate- or mineral-protected SOC pools. Soil acidity can also shift fungal–bacterial balance and residue stability; fungal residues are often more resistant, and higher fungal activity under acidic conditions can increase the persistence of necromass-derived carbon [25,23].

Protection and stabilization ultimately determine long-term persistence. Aggregation and mineral association represent two major protective mechanisms. Aggregate turnover and microaggregate formation can physically occlude organic matter, reducing microbial accessibility and promoting carbon retention [2]. In bamboo soils, root inputs and microbial extracellular compounds, including extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), can enhance aggregation and strengthen physical protection (Fig. 2). Empirical evidence shows that long-term bamboo cultivation can increase mean weight diameter and occluded particulate organic carbon in surface soils, indicating stronger structural protection. Isotopic evidence further supports preferential incorporation of fresh inputs into larger aggregates and subsequent redistribution toward more stable pools over time, extending residence times [26].

These stabilization mechanisms are also likely to differ between topsoil and subsoil. In topsoil, higher root density, litter incorporation, microbial activity, and aggregate turnover may make microbial transformation and aggregate-based protection particularly important [27]. In contrast, in subsoil, where bamboo rhizomes and roots may extend to depths approaching 100 cm, lower microbial activity, longer carbon turnover times, and stronger mineral constraints may increase the relative importance of organo-mineral association and deep PhytOC preservation [28,29].

Mineral association constrains the upper limit of MAOC formation. Mineral interactions are fundamental to organic matter stabilization [3], and reactive minerals such as amorphous iron oxides can be particularly influential. In moso bamboo soils, amorphous iron oxides are strongly correlated with SOC, suggesting mineral sorption capacity as a key constraint on stabilization [30]. Microbial residues are especially prone to forming organo-mineral complexes, and high clay content and mineral surfaces can reduce decomposition of stabilized fractions by limiting accessibility [16]. These observations reinforce that necromass supply and mineral protection must be jointly considered to explain long-term SOC accumulation.

Alongside MAOC formation, PhytOC provides a parallel long-lived pathway. Evidence indicates that phytolith-occluded carbon in bamboo can contribute to long-term sequestration [5] and that sympodial bamboo roots can be key sites of PhytOC formation, linked to available silicon [6]. Parent material can strongly shape PhytOC accumulation patterns, with shale-derived soils showing greater accumulation than limestone-derived soils [31]. Strong vertical coherence of PhytOC within 0–100 cm further suggests relevance for deep soil pools [17]. Together, these findings imply that bamboo long-term sequestration emerges from the coexistence of microbially mediated MAOC formation and PhytOC-based long-residence storage (Fig. 2).

4 Aboveground–Belowground Coupling: Dual Control of Input Tempo and Stabilization Efficiency

A soil-only lens cannot fully explain system-level differences in bamboo carbon sinks, because aboveground structure and productivity strongly regulate the magnitude, quality, and timing of carbon inputs [32], while underground biotic interactions and soil constraints regulate stabilization efficiency. To move beyond a descriptive aboveground–belowground framework, we propose trait-based hypotheses that connect measurable aboveground attributes with belowground stabilization outcomes. For instance, higher specific leaf area, leaf nutrient concentrations, or canopy productivity may increase labile carbon inputs and stimulate microbial biomass turnover, thereby enhancing microbial necromass formation and MAOC accumulation [33]. Conversely, more conservative aboveground traits may slow decomposition and favor POC persistence [34]. Stand density and canopy structure may further regulate fine-root production and rhizodeposition, linking aboveground competition to belowground carbon allocation [11]. These hypotheses provide testable pathways connecting aboveground functional traits with microbial transformation, POC–MAOC partitioning, and long-term SOC stabilization. Thus, the coupled framework links aboveground control of carbon-input quantity and quality with belowground control of transformation and stabilization efficiency.

These hypotheses can be further evaluated along gradients of stand density, canopy structure, and management intensity, which influence carbon allocation to belowground organs, fine-root turnover, and rhizodeposition [35,36]. Harvest strategies can differ in their impacts on the integrity of rhizome networks and soil structure, which in turn affects the continuity of belowground inputs and the maintenance of physical protection mechanisms. Underground factors such as root competition, mycorrhizal symbioses, decomposer community structure, and rhizosphere microbial networks control microbial processing pathways, necromass formation, EPS production, aggregation capacity, and the effective ceiling of MAOC formation imposed by mineral association. Soil acidity and mineralogy can shift fungal–bacterial dominance and thereby influence residue type and persistence [23]. Consequently, enhancing bamboo carbon sinks is better framed as improving stabilization efficiency under adequate inputs, rather than maximizing productivity alone.

5 Regulating Factors and Management-Relevant Pathways

Stand age often reflects time-accumulated development of belowground structure and soil stabilization conditions. Mature moso bamboo stands can show higher MRC and PhytOC stocks than younger stands [37], and species-specific patterns indicate that maturity can coincide with higher belowground sequestration efficiency [38]. Mechanistically, maturity can involve a more developed rhizome–root network, stabilized fine-root turnover and rhizodeposition, increased phytolith formation, strengthened aggregation, and more complete mineral association processes. Management should therefore align harvest cycles with the timescales required for stabilization processes to develop and recover.

Management intensity is among the most direct levers, but its effects on SOC and carbon pool structure should be interpreted as context dependent rather than uniformly beneficial or harmful [39]. Management outcomes may vary with bamboo species, soil type, climate, disturbance intensity, management duration, and the recovery time of belowground processes. Reduced disturbance can help maintain aggregate structure and protect occluded carbon when the rhizome–root system remains intact and soil physicochemical protection capacity is sufficient. Evidence suggests SOC can be higher under abandonment relative to intensive management [40], while selective harvest may preserve rhizome integrity and improve belowground accumulation efficiency [41]. In contrast, intensive disturbance can disrupt aggregation and expose protected carbon, and certain management contexts have been associated with SOC decline [42]. Fertilization and mulching can alter the dynamics of labile carbon pools seasonally [43], highlighting that management reshapes carbon pool structure, not merely totals.

Soil parent material and physicochemical properties impose foundational constraints on stabilization capacity. Reactive minerals, including iron oxides, influence mineral association and MAOC formation potential, consistent with strong SOC–iron oxide relationships in bamboo soils [44]. Silicon availability and parent material shape PhytOC formation and accumulation, with shale-derived soils supporting greater PhytOC accumulation than limestone-derived soils [31]. Soil acidity can shift microbial community composition and potentially favor more persistent fungal residues [25,40]. These constraints imply that identical management actions can yield different sink outcomes depending on whether inputs are matched to stabilization capacity and whether disturbance compromises structural protection.

Community structure and diversity can influence sequestration through concurrent changes in carbon allocation and microbial processes. Mixed stands can enhance microbial diversity and potentially improve belowground processing and stabilization, while moderate density regulation can increase fine-root productivity and strengthen belowground inputs [45]. The key is not short-term yield alone, but whether these adjustments improve the routing of inputs into stable pools through enhanced residue formation, aggregation, and mineral association.

6 Accounting and Monitoring: Making the Durable Belowground Sink Visible

A persistent challenge in bamboo carbon accounting is that aboveground pools are comparatively easy to measure while belowground processes are harder to capture, leading to systematic underrepresentation of the pathways that govern long-term persistence. Traditional biomass-based methods may underestimate bamboo carbon sinks by 15%–30%, particularly because rhizome–root systems are substantial and directly linked to soil stabilization processes. Remote sensing plays an important role in landscape-scale estimation [46], but its sensitivity to belowground mechanisms is limited and should be complemented by ground-based indicators that reflect the mechanistic chain from inputs to stabilization.

A mechanistically informed accounting approach must be able to detect changes in inputs, microbial transformation, and protective capacity, and it should recognize early signals in carbon pool structure even when total SOC changes slowly. Variation in fine-root turnover and rhizodeposition precede detectable changes in SOC, microbial necromass indicators act as robust proxies for MCP strength and the potential for stabilization, and shifts in POC-to-MAOC partitioning and aggregate stability indicate changes in protection capacity. PhytOC stocks and formation rates provide complementary information on a long-residence pathway. Integrating these components with aboveground productivity, management intensity, and site context can bridge the conceptual framework (Figs. 1–3) with practical, comparable, and management-relevant accounting. Importantly, silvicultural management effectiveness should not be judged solely by short-term bulk SOC stock changes; SOC responds slowly, whereas pool structure and stabilization indicators may reveal directional changes earlier and thus provide more actionable guidance.

7 Key Research Priorities

Despite clear progress, several knowledge gaps constrain predictive and management-oriented understanding. Quantifying organ-specific contributions of rhizomes versus fine roots to rhizodeposition, necromass formation, and PhytOC formation remains a priority, as rhizome contributions may be underappreciated [7]. Deep-soil carbon dynamics are also under-resolved; strong vertical coherence of PhytOC within 0–100 cm [17] highlights potential relevance for deeper pools, but processes beyond that depth remain poorly characterized.

Clarifying possible coupling between silicon cycling and microbial processing is another frontier. Available silicon is linked to PhytOC formation [47], and microbial processes may influence silicon availability and rhizosphere chemistry, potentially affecting phytolith formation; reciprocally, silicon-related changes in plant tissues and litter chemistry could influence microbial pathways and stabilization efficiency. If such coupling exists, it could help explain parent-material-driven differences and offer new management entry points.

Long-term experiments are essential to resolve how disturbance and inputs reshape pool structure. Total SOC may change slowly, while POC/MAOC partitioning, aggregate stability, and necromass indicators may shift earlier. Multi-year comparative trials across management gradients that jointly measure inputs, transformation, and protection would strengthen causal inference. Finally, bamboo expansion and global-change forcing require mechanistic validation [48]. Warming, nitrogen deposition, and extreme precipitation may alter input tempo, microbial pathways, and protective capacity; long-term observation and manipulative experiments should pay particular attention to extreme events that disrupt aggregates and mineral association and to the timescales of recovery.

8 Conclusions

The durability of bamboo carbon sinks is largely governed by belowground processes. Rhizome–root inputs and rhizodeposition supply substrates and sustain input tempo; microbial processing routes labile inputs into necromass and increases the fraction entering stable pools; EPS and aggregation enhance physical protection; mineral association promotes POC-to-MAOC transformation and extends residence times; and PhytOC provides a long-residence pool on centennial to millennial scales (Figs. 1 and 2). At the ecosystem scale, aboveground community attributes regulate the magnitude, quality, and tempo of soil inputs, while underground community structure and biotic interactions control stabilization efficiency, together shaping bamboo carbon cycling and sink patterns (Fig. 3). Future work should quantify organ-specific contributions, strengthen deep-soil evidence, clarify silicon–microbial coupling, and expand long-term experiments under global-change forcing to support accurate accounting and sustainable enhancement of bamboo carbon sinks.

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The Author(s) 2026. This article is published by Higher Education Press.