Statistical framework for condensation frosting incipience on smooth and nanostructured surfaces

Abstract

Frost and ice formation on a solid surface is governed by nanoscale liquid‒solid intermolecular interactions that manifest as macroscopic surface wettability. This study uses rigorous experiments and modeling approaches to develop a framework for condensation frosting incipience on surfaces having different wettabilities. The model employs a comprehensive statistical framework, considers the effect of surface wettability, and captures the stochastic nature of both nucleation dynamics for condensation and droplet growth during the subsequent freezing process. By introducing a statistical description of the active nucleation sites and droplet size distribution, we provide a reliable model that can predict the overall surface coverage fraction by frozen droplets. Our model shows that superhydrophilic and hydrophilic surfaces have much higher coverage fractions than superhydrophobic surfaces and demonstrates the connection between coverage and frost density and adhesion strength under different wettabilities. The developed framework provides insight into surface design for applications where frost and ice formation are important.

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RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Droplet published by Jilin University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.