Green Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: A Review of Hydrogen Fuel Cell and Solar-Powered Drones

Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly used in applications such as agriculture, logistics, mapping, surveillance, and environmental monitoring. However, the limited battery endurance continues to restrict mission duration and operational range. This review examines two sustainable propulsion alternatives, hydrogen fuel cells and solar-powered systems, based on findings reported in the literature. Evidence from peer-reviewed studies, experimental demonstrations, and industrial reports published between 2009 and 2024 is considered. Key parameters, including endurance, payload capacity, and operational altitude, are compared, along with practical aspects such as hydrogen storage, thermal management, and energy control systems. The available data suggest that hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) drones are better suited for low to mid-altitude missions requiring higher payload and rapid refueling. Solar-powered drones are more effective for long-endurance and high-altitude applications under favorable solar conditions. Future developments are expected to focus on hybrid propulsion systems, improved materials, and more efficient energy management strategies.

Keywords

UAV / Hydrogen fuel cells / Solar-powered UAV / Endurance / Sustainable propulsion

References

[1] Xu L, Huangfu Y, Ma R, Xie R, Song Z, Zhao D, et al. A Comprehensive Review on Fuel Cell UAV Key Technologies: Propulsion System, Management Strategy, and Design Procedure. IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrific. 2022, 8, 4118-4139. DOI: 10.1109/TTE.2022.3195272

[2] Tian W, Liu L, Zhang X, Shao J, Ge J. A coordinated optimization method of energy management and trajectory optimization for hybrid electric UAVs with PV/Fuel Cell/Battery. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2024, 50, 1110-1121. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.11.030

[3] Boukoberine MN, Zhou Z, Benbouzid M. A critical review on unmanned aerial vehicles power supply and energy management: Solutions, strategies, and prospects. Appl. Energy 2019, 255, 113823. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113823

[4] Hydrogen Fuel Cell Manufacturer, Intelligent Energy Limited. Available online: https://www.intelligent—energy.com/ (accessed on 15 January 2024).

[5] Ventura D, Bruno M, Jona Lasinio G, Belluscio A, Ardizzone G. A low—cost drone based application for identifying and mapping of coastal fish nursery grounds. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2016, 171, 85-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2016.01.030

[6] Liu Z, Sengupta R, Kurzhanskiy A. A power consumption model for multi—rotor small unmanned aircraft systems. In Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Miami, FL, USA, 13—16 June 2017; pp. 310-315. DOI: 10.1109/ICUAS.2017.7991310

[7] Cook B. Introduction to fuel cells and hydrogen technology. Eng. Sci. Educ. J. 2002, 11, 205-216. DOI: 10.1049/esej:20020601

[8] An JH, Kwon DY, Jeon KS, Tyan M, Lee JW. Advanced Sizing Methodology for a Multi—Mode eVTOL UAV Powered by a Hydrogen Fuel Cell and Battery. Aerospace 2022, 9, 71. DOI: 10.3390/aerospace9020071

[9] Sharaf OZ, Orhan MF. An overview of fuel cell technology: Fundamentals and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 32, 810-853. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.012

[10] Kim J, Kim T. Compact PEM fuel cell system combined with all—in—one hydrogen generator using chemical hydride as a hydrogen source. Appl. Energy 2015, 160, 945-953. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.084

[11] Dutczak J. Compressed hydrogen storage in contemporary fuel cell propulsion systems of small drones. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 421, 042013. DOI: 10.1088/1757—899X/421/4/042013

[12] Panagiotou P, Tsavlidis I, Yakinthos K. Conceptual design of a hybrid solar MALE UAV. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2016, 53, 207-219. DOI: 10.1016/j.ast.2016.03.023

[13] Letsios K, Charisiou ND, Skodras GS, Goula MA, Douvartzides SL. Hydrogen Compression Choices for Tomorrow’s Refueling Stations: Review of Recent Advances and Selection Guide. Hydrogen 2026, 7, 25. DOI: 10.3390/hydrogen7010025

[14] Tiele A, Esfahani S, Covington J. Design and Development of a Low—Cost, Portable Monitoring Device for Indoor Environment Quality. J. Sens. 2018, 2018, 5353816. DOI: 10.1155/2018/5353816

[15] Jiang Z. Design and testing of a fuel—cell powered battery charging station. J. Power Sources 2003, 115, 279-287. DOI: 10.1016/S0378—7753(02)00725—5

[16] Allafi I, Iqbal T. Design and implementation of a low cost web server using ESP32 for real—time photovoltaic system monitoring. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), Saskatoon, SK, Canada, 22—25 October 2017; pp. 1-5. DOI: 10.1109/EPEC.2017.8286184

[17] Hwang S, Kim S, Lee Y. Developing High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Solar—powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). J. Aerosp. Syst. Eng. 2016, 10, 59-65. DOI: 10.20910/JASE.2016.10.1.59

[18] Pochwała S, Gardecki A, Lewandowski P, Somogyi V, Anweiler S. Developing of Low—Cost Air Pollution Sensor—Measurements with the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Poland. Sensors 2020, 20, 3582. DOI: 10.3390/s20123582

[19] Bahrami Torabi H, Sadi M, Yazdian Varjani A. Solar Power System for experimental unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV); design and fabrication. In Proceedings of the 2011 2nd Power Electronics, Drive Systems and Technologies Conference, Tehran, Iran, 16—17 February 2011; pp. 129-134. DOI: 10.1109/PEDSTC.2011.5742404

[20] Morton S, D’Sa R, Papanikolopoulos N. Solar powered UAV: Design and experiments. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Hamburg, Germany, 28 September—2 October 2015; pp. 2460-2466. DOI: 10.1109/IROS.2015.7353711

[21] Herwitz S, Johnson L, Arvesen J, Higgins R, Leung J, Dunagan S. Precision Agriculture as a Commercial Application for Solar—Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. In Proceedings of the 1st UAV Conference, Portsmouth, VA, USA, 20—23 May 2002. DOI: 10.2514/6.2002—3404.

[22] Naskar M, Dharmendra HM, Sarode GL. Preparation and properties of nano zinc oxide doped ethylene vinyl acetate nanocomposites for solar cell encapsulation. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 27, 1939-1942. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.791

[23] Aguiar P, Brett D, Brandon N. Solid oxide fuel cell/gas turbine hybrid system analysis for high—altitude long—endurance unmanned aerial vehicles. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2008, 33, 7214-7223. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.09.012

[24] Furrutter MK, Meyer J. Small fuel cell powering an unmanned aerial vehicle. In Proceedings of the AFRICON 2009, Nairobi, Kenya, 23—25 September 2009; pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1109/AFRCON.2009.5308096

[25] Delorme A, Rousseau A, Sharer P, Pagerit S, Wallner T. Evolution of Hydrogen Fueled Vehicles Compared to Conventional Vehicles from 2010 to 2045 ; SAE Technical Paper 2009—01—1008; SAE International: Warrendale, PA, USA, 2009. DOI: 10.4271/2009—01—1008

[26] Rousseau A, Wallner T, Sylvain P, Lohse—Busch H. Prospects on Fuel Economy Improvements for Hydrogen Powered Vehicles ; SAE Technical Paper 2008—01—2378; SAE International: Warrendale, PA, USA, 2008. DOI: 10.4271/2008—01—2378

[27] Singla MK, Nijhawan P, Oberoi AS. Hydrogen fuel and fuel cell technology for cleaner future: A review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 15607-15626. DOI: 10.1007/s11356—020—12231—8

[28] Apeland J, Pavlou D, Hemmingsen T. Suitability Analysis of Implementing a Fuel Cell on a Multirotor Drone. J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag. 2020, 12, e3220. DOI: 10.5028/jatm.v12.1172

[29] Rajendran P, Smith H. Modelling of solar irradiance and daylight duration for solar—powered UAV sizing. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2016, 34, 235-243. DOI: 10.1177/0144598716629874

[30] Harasani W, Khalid M, Arai N, Fukuda K, Hiraoka K. Initial conceptual design and wing aerodynamic analysis of a solar power—based UAV. Aeronaut. J. 2014, 118, 540-554. DOI: 10.1017/S0001924000009350

[31] Pan ZF, An L, Wen CY. Recent advances in fuel cells based propulsion systems for unmanned aerial vehicles. Appl. Energy 2019, 240, 473-485. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.02.071

[32] Hordé T, Achard P, Metkemeijer R. PEMFC application for aviation: Experimental and numerical study of sensitivity to altitude. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 10818-10829. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.04.085

[33] Novillo E, Pardo M, García—Luis A. Novel Approaches for the Integration of High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells into Aircrafts. J. Fuel Cell Sci. Technol. 2011, 8, 011014. DOI: 10.1115/1.4002400

[34] Rinaldi F, Marchesi R. Polimeric Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells: Characterization Test Under Variable Temperature and Relative Humidity Conditions. J. Fuel Cell Sci. Technol. 2007, 4, 231-237. DOI: 10.1115/1.2713786

[35] Barelli L, Bidini G, Gallorini F, Ottaviano A. Analysis of the operating conditions influence on PEM fuel cell performances by means of a novel semi—empirical model. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011, 36, 10434-10442. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.06.032

[36] Jashnani S, Nada TR, Ishfaq M, Khamker A, Shaholia P. Sizing and preliminary hardware testing of solar powered UAV. Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci. 2013, 16, 189-198. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrs.2013.05.002

[37] Maurya NK, Tripathi AK, Chauhan A, Pandey PC, Lamine S. Recent Advancement and Role of Drones in Forest Monitoring. In Advances in Remote Sensing for Forest Monitoring ; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2022; pp. 221-254. DOI: 10.1002/9781119788157.ch11

[38] Chu L, Li X, Xu J, Neiat AG, Liu X. A Holistic Service Provision Strategy for Drone—as—a—Service in MEC—based UAV Delivery. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Web Services (ICWS), Chicago, IL, USA, 5—10 September 2021; pp. 669-674. DOI: 10.1109/ICWS53863.2021.00092

[39] Cestino E. Design of solar high altitude long endurance aircraft for multi payload & operations. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2006, 10, 541-550. DOI: 10.1016/j.ast.2006.06.001

[40] Liu N, Xu Z, Morrin A, Luo X. Low fouling strategies for electrochemical biosensors targeting disease biomarkers. Anal. Methods 2019, 11, 702-711. DOI: 10.1039/C8AY02674B

[41] Salazar F, Martinez—Garcia MS, Castro AD, Logroño N, Cazorla—Logroño MF, Guamán—Molina J, et al. Optimization of the solar energy storage capacity for a monitoring UAV. Sustain. Futures 2024, 7, 100146. DOI: 10.1016/j.sftr.2023.100146

[42] Gao XZ, Hou ZX, Guo Z, Zhu XF, Liu JX, Chen XQ. Parameters determination for concept design of solar‐powered, high‐altitude long‐endurance UAV. Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 2013, 85, 293-303. DOI: 10.1108/AEAT—Jan—2012—0011

[43] Frulla G, Cestino E. Design, manufacturing and testing of a HALE—UAV structural demonstrator. Compos. Struct. 2008, 83, 143-153. DOI: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2007.04.008

[44] Ramesh SS, Ma J, Lim KM, Lee HP, Khoo BC. Numerical evaluation of station—keeping strategies for stratospheric balloons. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2018, 80, 288-300. DOI: 10.1016/j.ast.2018.07.010

[45] Tsach S, Peled A, Penn D, Keshales B, Guedj R. Development Trends for Next Generation of UAV Systems. In Proceedings of the AIAA Infotech@Aerospace 2007 Conference and Exhibit, Rohnert Park, CA, USA, 7—10 May 2007. DOI: 10.2514/6.2007—2762

[46] Troncoso E, Lapeña—Rey N, Valero O. Solar—powered hydrogen refuelling station for unmanned aerial vehicles: Design and initial AC test results. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2014, 39, 1841-1855. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.11.064

[47] Banu TP, Borlea GF, Banu C. The Use of Drones in Forestry. J. Environ. Sci. Eng. B 2016, 5, 557-562. DOI: 10.17265/2162—5263/2016.11.007

[48] Suewatanakul S, Porcarelli A, Olsson A, Grimler H, Chiche A, Mariani R, et al. Conceptual Design of a Hybrid Hydrogen Fuel Cell/Battery Blended—Wing—Body Unmanned Aerial Vehicle—An Overview. Aerospace 2022, 9, 275. DOI: 10.3390/aerospace9050275

[49] HES multirotor drone, designed and built in US, has 3h flight time. Fuel Cells Bull. 2018, 2018, 5. DOI: 10.1016/S1464—2859(18)30446—2

[50] Belmonte N, Staulo S, Fiorot S, Luetto C, Rizzi P, Baricco M. Fuel cell powered octocopter for inspection of mobile cranes: Design, cost analysis and environmental impacts. Appl. Energy 2018, 215, 556-565. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.02.072

[51] Padwad D, Naidu HK, Kokate P, Agrawal P. Smart IoT System for Indoor Plants with Augmented Artificial Lighting. In Proceedings of the 2023 11th International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering & Technology—Signal and Information Processing (ICETET—SIP), Nagpur, India, 28—29 April 2023; pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1109/ICETET—SIP58143.2023.10151545

[52] De Wagter C, Remes B, Ruijsink R, van Tienen F, van der Horst E. Design and Testing of a Vertical Take—Off and Landing UAV Optimized for Carrying a Hydrogen Fuel Cell with a Pressure Tank. Unmanned Syst. 2020, 8, 279-285. DOI: 10.1142/S2301385020500223

[53] Bradley T, Moffitt B, Fuller T, Mavris D, Parekh D. Design Studies for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. In Proceedings of the 26th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Honolulu, HI, USA, 18—21 August 2008. DOI: 10.2514/6.2008—6413

[54] Lapeña—Rey N, Blanco JA, Ferreyra E, Lemus JL, Pereira S, Serrot E. A fuel cell powered unmanned aerial vehicle for low altitude surveillance missions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, 6926-6940. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.01.137

[55] Özbek E, Yalin G, Ekici S, Karakoc TH. Evaluation of design methodology, limitations, and iterations of a hydrogen fuelled hybrid fuel cell mini UAV. Energy 2020, 213, 118757. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2020.118757

[56] H3 Dynamics Launches Hydrogen Fuel Cell UAV with 10 Hour Flight Time| Unmanned Systems Technology. Available online: https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/2016/11/h3—dynamics—launches—fuel—cell—electric—uav—with—10—hour—flight—time/ (accessed on 15 January 2024).

[57] Sparkletech—Built for Tough Missions. Available online: https://www.sparkletech.hk/ (accessed on 15 January 2024).

[58] Flightwave, FlightWave Aerospace, Inc. Announces Hydrogen—Powered Jupiter—H2 UAS, FlightWave Aero. Available online: https://www.flightwave.aero/newsentry/flightwave—aerospace—inc—announces—hydrogen—powered—jupiter—h2—uas/ (accessed on 15 January 2024).

[59] Fahlstrom PG, Gleason TJ, Sadraey MH. Introduction to UAV Systems ; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2022.