Towards Carbon Neutrality: Advances and Challenges in Architecting Carbon Nanofibers-Based Photocatalysts

Abstract

Photocatalytic conversion of CO₂ into valuable hydrocarbon products offers a potential pathway to mitigate excessive CO₂ emissions and support carbon neutrality goals. Carbon nanofibers (CNFs)-based composites have emerged as promising platforms owing to their interconnected network, high specific surface area, electronic conductivity, and photothermal properties. This review focuses on controllable preparation strategies, including sol-gel, chemical vapor deposition, vapor-phase flow catalysis, and electrospinning, and discusses how different synthesis processes and precursor choices influence the pore structure, graphitization degree, defects, and surface functional groups of CNFs. From kinetic and thermodynamic perspectives, rational design strategies such as heteroatom doping, heterostructure construction, single-atom loading, and interface engineering are explored to optimize band structures and lower activation barriers. Recent breakthroughs in solar-driven hydrogen production, CO₂ reduction, nitrogen fixation, organic pollutant degradation, heavy metal removal, antibacterial, and photothermal treatment are highlighted. Photo-generated charge separation pathways and surface reaction enhancement mechanisms under light-thermal-electric multifield synergy are systematically analyzed. Finally, the main challenges are summarized, including the need for in-depth structure-activity relationship analysis and scalable preparation. Promising future directions involving machine learning-assisted screening, multi-scale structural design, and in-situ characterization may contribute to advancing CNFs-based photocatalysts toward efficient, stable, and scalable solar conversion systems.

Keywords

carbon nanofibers / carbon neutrality / heterojunction / photocatalysis / solar fuels

References

[1] L. Li, Y. Zhang, T. Zhou, et al., “Mitigation of China's Carbon Neutrality to Global Warming,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 5315.

[2] Z. Hu, Z. Wang, Z. Guo, et al., “Impacts of Abatement in Anthropogenic Emissions in the Context of China's Carbon Neutrality on Global Photovoltaic Potential,” npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 8, no. 1 (2025): 122.

[3] Q. Sun, L. Jin, W. He, et al., “Dual-Fluorinated Ni Single Atom Catalyst for Efficient Artificial Photosynthetic Diluted CO₂ Reduction,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 26 (2025): 2503414.

[4] Z. Wei and F. Xiao, “Photosensitization Efficiency Modulation of Atomically Precise Silver Nanoclusters for Photoelectrocatalysis,” Inorganic Chemistry 62, no. 15 (2023): 6138–6146.

[5] H. Zhang, X. Liu, B. Liu, et al., “Synergistic Degradation of Azure B and Sulfanilamide Antibiotics by the White-Rot Fungus Trametes Versicolor With an Activated Ligninolytic Enzyme System,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 458 (2023): 131939.

[6] K. Wang, X. Ge, Q. Mo, et al., “Steering Bi-Directional Charge Transfer via Non-Conjugated Insulating Polymer,” Journal of Catalysis 416 (2022): 92–102.

[7] Q. Mo, S. Hou, Z. Wei, X. Fu, G. Xiao, and F. Xiao, “Fine Tuning of Charge Motion Over Homogeneous Transient Metal Chalcogenides Heterostructured Photoanodes for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting,” Chemical Engineering Journal 433 (2022): 133641.

[8] S. Wang, X. Hai, X. Ding, et al., “Light-Switchable Oxygen Vacancies in Ultrafine Bi₅O₇Br Nanotubes for Boosting Solar-Driven Nitrogen Fixation in Pure Water,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 31 (2017): 1701774.

[9] H. Li, J. Li, Z. Ai, F. Jia, and L. Zhang, “Oxygen Vacancy-Mediated Photocatalysis of BiOCL: Reactivity, Selectivity, and Perspectives,” Angewandte Chemie, International Edition 57, no. 1 (2018): 122–138.

[10] Q. Wang and D. Astruc, “State of the Art and Prospects in Metal-Organic Framework (MOF)-Based and MOF-Derived Nanocatalysis,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 2 (2020): 1438–1511.

[11] Y. Zhao, Y. Zhao, R. Shi, et al., “Tuning Oxygen Vacancies in Ultrathin TiO₂ Nanosheets to Boost Photocatalytic Nitrogen Fixation up to 700 nm,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 16 (2019): 1806482.

[12] V. Q. Hieu, T. K. Phung, T. Q. Nguyen, et al., “Photocatalytic Degradation of Methyl Orange Dye by Ti₃C₂-TiO₂ Heterojunction Under Solar Light,” Chemosphere 276 (2021): 130154.

[13] S. G. Kumar and L. G. Devi, “Review on Modified TiO₂ Photocatalysis under UV/Visible Light: Selected Results and Related Mechanisms on Interfacial Charge Carrier Transfer Dynamics,” Journal of Physical Chemistry A 115, no. 46 (2011): 13211–13241.

[14] M. Pelaez, N. T. Nolan, S. C. Pillai, et al., “A Review on the Visible Light Active Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysts for Environmental Applications,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 125 (2012): 331–349.

[15] S. Sakthivel, B. Neppolian, M. V. Shankar, B. Arabindoo, M. Palanichamy, and V. Murugesan, “Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Azo Dye: Comparison of Photocatalytic Efficiency of ZnO and TiO₂,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 77, no. 1 (2003): 65–82.

[16] J. Song, C. Li, X. Zhang, P. Ma, and K. Zheng, “Hydrogen Peroxide Production With Photocatalysts Based on Carbon Nitride: Evaluation Criteria, Reaction Mechanism, Improvement Scheme, and Development Opportunity,” ACS Catalysis 15, no. 11 (2025): 9058–9088.

[17] Q. You, C. Zhang, M. Cao, et al., “Coordinating the Exciton-Mediated and Carrier-Mediated Photocatalytic Mechanisms of Carbon Nitride Using Acetylacetone for Enhancing Emerging Contaminants Removal,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 338 (2023): 123025.

[18] J. A. Kumar, P. Prakash, T. Krithiga, et al., “Methods of Synthesis, Characteristics, and Environmental Applications of MXene: A Comprehensive Review,” Chemosphere 286 (2022): 131607.

[19] B.-M. Jun, S. Kim, J. Heo, et al., “Review of MXenes as New Nanomaterials for Energy Storage/Delivery and Selected Environmental Applications,” Nano Research 12, no. 3 (2019): 471–487.

[20] X. Chen, S. Shen, L. Guo, and S. S. Mao, “Semiconductor-Based Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation,” Chemical Reviews 110, no. 11 (2010): 6503–6570.

[21] J. C. Yu, C. Yu, C. Ho, C. Jiang, and C. Zhang, “Effects of F-Doping on the Photocatalytic Activity and Microstructures of Nanocrystalline TiO₂ Powders,” Chemistry of Materials 14, no. 9 (2002): 3808–3816.

[22] R. Asahi, T. Morikawa, T. Ohwaki, K. Aoki, and Y. Taga, “Visible-Light Photocatalysis in Nitrogen-Doped Titanium Oxides,” Science 293, no. 5528 (2001): 269–271.

[23] G. Liu, P. Niu, C. Sun, et al., “Unique Electronic Structure Induced High Photoreactivity of Sulfur-Doped Graphitic C₃N₄,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 132, no. 33 (2010): 11642–11648.

[24] T. Ohno, M. Akiyoshi, T. Umebayashi, K. Asai, T. Mitsui, and M. Matsumura, “Preparation of S-Doped TiO₂ Photocatalysts and Their Photocatalytic Activities Under Visible Light,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 265, no. 1 (2004): 115–121.

[25] H. Huang, X. Han, X. Li, S. Wang, P. K. Chu, and Y. Zhang, “Fabrication of Multiple Heterojunctions With Tunable Visible-Light-Active Photocatalytic Reactivity in BiOBr-BiOI Full-Range Composites Based on Microstructure Modulation and Band Structures,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 7, no. 1 (2015): 482–492.

[26] J. Xue, S. Ma, Y. Zhou, Z. Zhang, and M. He, “Facile Photochemical Synthesis of Au/Pt/g-C₃N₄ With Plasmon-Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity for Antibiotic Degradation,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 7, no. 18 (2015): 9630–9637.

[27] J. Fu, J. Yu, C. Jiang, and B. Cheng, “g-C₃N₄-Based Heterostructured Photocatalysts,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 3 (2018): 1701503.

[28] J. Ran, W. Guo, H. Wang, B. Zhu, J. Yu, and S.-Z. Qiao, “Metal-Free 2D/2D Phosphorene/g-C₃N₄ Van Der Waals Heterojunction for Highly Enhanced Visible-Light Photocatalytic H₂ Production,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 25 (2018): 1800128.

[29] P. Wen, K. Zhao, H. Li, et al., “In Situ Decorated Ni₂P Nanocrystal Co-Catalysts on g-C₃N₄ for Efficient and Stable Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution via a Facile Co-Heating Method,” Journal of Materials Chemistry, A 8, no. 6 (2020): 2995–3004.

[30] I. Paramasivam, H. Jha, N. Liu, and P. Schmuki, “A Review of Photocatalysis Using Self-Organized TiO₂ Nanotubes and Other Ordered Oxide Nanostructures,” Small 8, no. 20 (2012): 3073–3103.

[31] S. M. Pasini, A. Valério, G. Yin, et al., “An Overview on Nanostructured TiO₂-Containing Fibers for Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater Treatment,” Journal of Water Process Engineering 40 (2021): 101827.

[32] T. L. Nguyen, T. H. Pham, Y. Myung, et al., “Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity in Water Splitting for Hydrogen Generation by Using TiO₂ Coated Carbon Fiber With High Reusability,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47, no. 98 (2022): 41621–41630.

[33] J. Zhou, T. Shan, F. Zhang, et al., “A Novel Dual-Channel Carbon Nitride Homojunction With Nanofibrous Carbon for Significantly Boosting Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production,” Advanced Fiber Materials 6, no. 2 (2024): 387–400.

[34] M. B. Tahir, A. M. Asiri, G. Nabi, M. Rafique, and M. Sagir, “Fabrication of Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for Insight Role of Carbon Nanofibre in Hierarchical WO3/MoSe2 Composite for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation,” Ceramics International 45, no. 5 (2019): 5547–5552.

[35] M. Zhang, F. Wang, X. Shi, et al., “Preparation and Photodegradation Properties of Carbon-Nanofiber-Based Catalysts,” Polymers 14, no. 17 (2022): 3584.

[36] C. Xu, Y. Li, D. Li, et al., “Electrospinning-Derived Transition Metal/Carbon Nanofiber Composites as Electrocatalysts for Zn-Air Batteries,” Nanoscale 16, no. 17 (2024): 8286–8306.

[37] C. Sun, Z. Han, X. Wang, et al., “Advanced Carbons Nanofibers-Based Electrodes for Flexible Energy Storage Devices,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 52 (2023): 2305606.

[38] Y. Peng, X. Zhang, R. Sun, X. Zhang, C. Ge, and Y. Liu, “Review of Electro-Spun Carbon Nanofiber Electrode Materials for Electrochemical Capacitors,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 47 (2024): 32566–32592.

[39] Y. Si, S. Shi, and J. Hu, “Electrospinning and Electrospraying Synergism: Twins-Tech Collaboration Across Dimensions,” Matter 7, no. 4 (2024): 1373–1405.

[40] Y. Cho, J. W. Beak, M. Sagong, S. Ahn, J. S. Nam, and I.-D. Kim, “Electrospinning and Nanofiber Technology: Fundamentals, Innovations, and Applications,” Advanced materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.) 37, no. 28 (2025): 2500162.

[41] Q. Su, J. Yang, Z. Wei, X. Wang, and J. Yang, “Biomimetic Nanofibrous Aerogels Enabling High-Temperature PM Filtration and Photocatalytic CO₂ Conversion for Sustainable Industrial Filtration Systems,” Small 22, no. 21 (2026): e14134.

[42] Z. Zhang, A. Niu, Y. Lv, et al., “NbC Nanoparticles Decorated Carbon Nanofibers as Highly Active and Robust Heterostructural Electrocatalysts for Ammonia Synthesis,” Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English) 63 (2024): e202406441.

[43] J. Cui, M. Wan, Z. Wang, Y. Zhao, and L. Sun, “Preparation of PAN/SiO₂/CTAB Electrospun Nanofibrous Membranes for Highly Efficient Air Filtration and Sterilization,” Separation and Purification Technology 321 (2023): 124270.

[44] D. Jeon, M. Sagong, M. S. Kim, J. S. Nam, H. Park, and I.-D. Kim, “Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers for Clean Energy Applications: A Comprehensive Review,” EcoMat 7 (2025): e12517.

[45] M. M. Hamedi, M. Sandberg, R. T. Olsson, J. Pedersen, T. Benselfelt, and J. Wohlert, “Wood and Cellulose: The Most Sustainable Advanced Materials for Past, Present, and Future Civilizations,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2415787.

[46] W. Song, Y. Tang, C. Qian, B. J. Kim, Y. Liao, and D.-G. Yu, “Electrospinning Spinneret: A Bridge Between the Visible World and the Invisible Nanostructures,” Innovation 4, no. 2 (2023): 100381.

[47] Z. Fan, C. Xiong, J. Yin, Y. Jia, Y. Zou, and Q. Ma, “Fabrication and Thermal Stability of Continuous Carbon Fiber Reinforced Alumina Matrix Composites via Sol-Gel Process,” Science of Advanced Materials 14, no. 8 (2022): 1378–1382.

[48] G. Yang, Z. Huang, X. Wang, and B. Wang, “Fabrication and Anti-Oxidation Ability of SiC-SiO₂ Coated Carbon Fibers Using Sol-Gel Method,” Materials 11, no. 3 (2018): 350.

[49] J. Ramachandran, M. Lu, P. J. Arias-Monje, M. H. Kirmani, N. Shirolkar, and S. Kumar, “Towards Designing Strong Porous Carbon Fibers Through Gel Spinning of Polymer Blends,” Carbon 173 (2021): 724–735.

[50] S. L. Flores-López, S. F. Villanueva, M. A. Montes-Morán, and A. Arenillas, “Synthesis of Carbon Fibers Arrays by the Sol-Gel Process,” Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology 98, no. 1 (2021): 31–34.

[51] Y. Yuan, T. Liu, F. Bu, X. Huang, and H. Luo, “Fabrication and Characterization of Robust Glassy Carbon Monoliths via Sol-Gel Process Followed by Direct Ambient Drying and Carbonization,” Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology 114, no. 2 (2025): 559–570.

[52] Y. Liu, C. Wang, Z. Liu, et al., “Self-Encapsulated Ionic Fibers Based on Stress-Induced Adaptive Phase Transition for Non-Contact Depth-of-Field Camouflage Sensing,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 663.

[53] W. Tian, J. Tang, M. Zhang, et al., “Three-Dimensional Electrospinning and Catalytic Graphitization Directly Prepared High Flexibility, Elasticity and Graphitization Interwoven Crimp Micro/Nano-Carbon-Fibrous Aerogels,” Carbon 246 (2026): 120871.

[54] B. O. Lee, W. J. Woo, and M.-S. Kim, “EMI Shielding Effectiveness of Carbon Nanofiber Filled Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) Coating Materials,” Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 286, no. 2 (2001): 114–118.

[55] V. Z. Mordkovich, “Carbon Nanofibers: A New Ultrahigh-Strength Material for Chemical Technology,” Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Engineering 37, no. 5 (2003): 429–438.

[56] R. J. Kuriger and M. K. Alam, “Extrusion Conditions and Properties of Vapor Grown Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene,” Polymer Composites 22, no. 5 (2001): 604–612.

[57] W. Lu, T. He, B. Xu, et al., “Progress in Catalytic Synthesis of Advanced Carbon Nanofibers,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 27 (2017): 13863–13881.

[58] G. Hu, X. Zhang, X. Liu, J. Yu, and B. Ding, “Strategies in Precursors and Post Treatments to Strengthen Carbon Nanofibers,” Advanced Fiber Materials 2, no. 2 (2020): 46–63.

[59] M. Endo, Y. A. Kim, T. Hayashi, et al., “Vapor-Grown Carbon Fibers (VGCFs),” Carbon 39, no. 9 (2001): 1287–1297.

[60] X. Xi, Z. Lu, H.-J. Chen, W. Tian, and Y.-L. Yang, “Flexible Carbon-Fiber/g-C₃N₄ Nanosheet Array as Recyclable Photocatalysts and Photoelectrocatalysts,” Scientific Reports 15, no. 1 (2025): 21090.

[61] N. M. Mubarak, J. N. Sahu, R. R. Karri, E. C. Abdullah, and M. Tripathi, “Effect of Hydrogen Flow Rate on the Synthesis of Carbon Nanofiber Using Microwave-Assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition With Ferrocene as a Catalyst,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 56 (2023): 21332–21344.

[62] D. Fu, X. Zeng, F. Deng, H. Sheng, and J. Zou, “Growth of Oriented Vapor Grown Carbon Fibers on Pyrolytic Carbon Films Without Catalyst,” Journal of Materials Science 45, no. 2 (2010): 570–574.

[63] I. Cho, J. Choi, K. Kim, M.-H. Ryou, and Y. M. Lee, “A Comparative Investigation of Carbon Black (Super-P) and Vapor-Grown Carbon Fibers (VGCFs) as Conductive Additives for Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes,” RSC Advances 5, no. 115 (2015): 95073–95078.

[64] C. Lupiáñez, M. C. Mayoral, L. I. Díez, E. Pueyo, S. Espatolero, and J. M. Andrés, “On the Oxy-Combustion of Lignite and Corn Stover in a Lab-Scale Fluidized Bed Reactor,” Biomass and Bioenergy 96 (2017): 152–161.

[65] G. Yang, F. Cheng, S. Zuo, et al., “Growing Carbon Nanotubes In Situ Surrounding Carbon Fiber Surface via Chemical Vapor Deposition to Reinforce Flexural Strength of Carbon Fiber Composites,” Polymers 15, no. 10 (2023): 2309.

[66] F. Cheng, D. Song, H. Li, S. K. Ravi, and S. C. Tan, “Recent Progress in Biomedical Scaffold Fabricated via Electrospinning: Design, Fabrication and Tissue Engineering Application,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 1 (2025): 2406950.

[67] A. Yousef, N. I. Zouli, I. M. Maafa, et al., “Fabrication of Heterojunction MnTiO₃-TiO₂-Decorated Carbon Nanofibers via Electrospinning as an Effective Multifunctional Photocatalyst,” Materials Science-Poland 40, no. 2 (2022): 289–305.

[68] X. Yang, Y. Chen, C. Zhang, G. Duan, and S. Jiang, “Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers and Their Reinforced Composites: Preparation, Modification, Applications, and Perspectives,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 249 (2023): 110386.

[69] Y. Cui, X. Hua, L.-Z. Liu, S. Li, and Y. Shi, “Evaluating Polyacrylonitrile Precursor Structure Effects on Carbon Fiber Production,” Polymer Bulletin 80, no. 8 (2023): 8321–8338.

[70] Y. Zhang, B. Zhu, S. Zhao, et al., “In Situ Synthesis of Self-Assembly Supramolecular Crystal Seeds Within Continuous Carbon Nanofibers for Improved Fiber Graphitic Structure,” ACS Nano 18, no. 17 (2024): 11360–11374.

[71] T. Ishikawa, F. Tanaka, F. Uehara, and M. Tane, “Mesoscopic Structure With High Aspect Ratio in PAN-Based Carbon Fibers,” Carbon 234 (2025): 120032.

[72] N. L. T. Nguyen, C. Creighton, S. Nunna, M. Maghe, T. Groetsch, and R. J. Varley, “Pan-Precursor to Carbon Fibre: An Investigation of Manufacture and Material Properties for Varying Comonomer Composition,” Polymer Degradation and Stability 227 (2024): 110835.

[73] M.-A. Kim, D. Jang, S. Tejima, et al., “Strengthened PAN-Based Carbon Fibers Obtained by Slow Heating Rate Carbonization,” Scientific Reports 6, no. 1 (2016): 22988.

[74] S. N. Arshad, M. Naraghi, and I. Chasiotis, “Strong Carbon Nanofibers from Electrospun Polyacrylonitrile,” Carbon 49, no. 5 (2011): 1710–1719.

[75] R. Zhang, Y. Ma, W. Lan, et al., “Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes by Ultrasonic-Assisted Electrospray TiO₂/Graphene Oxide on Polyacrylonitrile/β-cyclodextrin Nanofibrous Membranes,” Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 70 (2021): 105343.

[76] S. Asgari, G. Mohammadi Ziarani, A. Badiei, and Y. Vasseghian, “Zr-UiO-66, Ionic Liquid (HMIM+TFSI−), and Electrospun Nanofibers (Polyacrylonitrile): All in One as a Piezo-Photocatalyst for Degradation of Organic Dye,” Chemical Engineering Journal 487 (2024): 150600.

[77] J. Lu, W. Li, H. Kang, L. Feng, J. Xu, and R. Liu, “Microstructure and Properties of Polyacrylonitrile Based Carbon Fibers,” Polymer Testing 81 (2020): 106267.

[78] L. Yang, C. Niu, X. Cao, et al., “Mechanically Robust Conjugated Microporous Polymer Membranes Prepared Using Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Electrospun Nanofibers as a Template for Efficient PM Capture,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 637 (2023): 305–316.

[79] F. Bi, Z. Zheng, R. Li, et al., “Design and Performance Investigation of Novel Efficient Photocatalysts PVP-Modified PVDF/BiOBr Photocatalytic Membranes for Wastewater Treatment,” Chemical Engineering Journal 507 (2025): 160781.

[80] G. Jia, Y. Yu, X. Wang, et al., “Highly Conductive and Porous Lignin-Derived Carbon Fibers,” Materials Horizons 10, no. 12 (2023): 5847–5858.

[81] R. S. Havigh and H. M. Chenari, “Preparation and Characterization Study of γ-Fe₂O₃/Carbon Composite Nanofibers: Electrospinning of Composite Fibers Using PVP and Iron Nitrate as Precursors,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 25, no. 12 (2023): 8684–8691.

[82] Y. Wan, H. Liu, X. Li, et al., “From Type-I Heterojunction to High-Low Junction: Novel Charge Transfer Mechanisms and Recent Advances,” Science China: Technological Sciences 68, no. 12 (2025): 2210501.

[83] J. Wu, F. Huang, Q. Hu, et al., “Regulated Photocatalytic CO₂-to-CH₃OH Pathway by Synergetic Dual Active Sites of Interlayer,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 146, no. 38 (2024): 26478–26484.

[84] X. Meng, X. Wang, K. Yin, et al., “Integration of Photothermal Water Evaporation With Photocatalytic Microplastics Upcycling via Nanofluidic Thermal Management,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 121, no. 13 (2024): e2317192121.

[85] X. Xiao, X. Wang, C. Liu, and Y. Han, “Confinement Effect of Carbon Fibres@TiO₂ Schottky Heterojunctions for Ag-Plasmonic Photocatalysis With Switchable Hot/Photo Electrons,” Materials Today Energy 43 (2024): 101569.

[86] G. Zhai, J. Zhou, M. Xie, et al., “Lignin-Derived Carbon Nanofibers Loaded With TiO₂ Enables Efficient Photocatalysis,” Advanced Sustainable Systems 7, no. 4 (2023): 2200459.

[87] L. Ai, M. Zha, W. Cai, et al., “Construction of Freestanding BiOBr/CCFs Composites: Enhanced Carrier Separation Achieving Efficient Photocatalytic Performance,” Chemical Engineering Science 295 (2024): 120136.

[88] P. Wu, L.-R. Xiao, C.-Y. Ge, et al., “Construction of NiS/Carbon Fibers Confined NiS Composite: High Catalytic Activity for Enhancing the Hydrogen Storage Performances of MgH₂,” Rare Metals 44, no. 10 (2025): 7332–7348.

[89] Y. Sun, C. Xue, L. Chen, et al., “Enhancement of Interfacial Charge Transportation Through Construction of 2D-2D P-N Heterojunctions in Hierarchical 3D CNFs/MoS₂/ZnIn₂S₄ Composites to Enable High-Efficiency Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Solar RRL 5, no. 3 (2021): 2000722.

[90] Y. Li, P. Zhang, D. Wan, C. Xue, J. Zhao, and G. Shao, “Direct Evidence of 2D/1D Heterojunction Enhancement on Photocatalytic Activity Through Assembling MoS₂ Nanosheets Onto Super-Long TiO₂ Nanofibers,” Applied Surface Science 504 (2020): 144361.

[91] J. Feng, H. Wang, L. Guo, X. Huang, and X. Qian, “Construction of Photocatalytic Paper With Metal-Organic Framework Derived Hollow Heterojunction Loading Onto Carbonized Cellulose Fiber for Hydrogen Evolution,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 704 (2026): 139377.

[92] C. Pornrungroj, A. B. Mohamad Annuar, Q. Wang, et al., “Hybrid Photothermal-Photocatalyst Sheets for Solar-Driven Overall Water Splitting Coupled to Water Purification,” Nature Water 1, no. 11 (2023): 952–960.

[93] Y. Qu and X. Duan, “Progress, Challenge and Perspective of Heterogeneous Photocatalysts,” Chemical Society Reviews 42, no. 7 (2013): 2568–2580.

[94] Y. Wang, A. Vogel, M. Sachs, et al., “Current Understanding and Challenges of Solar-Driven Hydrogen Generation Using Polymeric Photocatalysts,” Nature Energy 4, no. 9 (2019): 746–760.

[95] P. Zhao, X. Hua, W. Xu, et al., “Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Hybrid of Fe₃C Nanorod-Encapsulated, N-Doped CNTs on Porous Carbon Sheets for Highly Efficient Oxygen Reduction and Water Oxidation,” Catalysis Science & Technology 6, no. 16 (2016): 6365–6371.

[96] Q. Wang, L. Meng, Z. Li, et al., “Cobalt Single Atom-Phosphate Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide/Perylenetetracarboxylic Acid Nanosheet Heterojunctions for Efficiently Photocatalytic H₂O₂ Production,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 75 (2025): 192–203.

[97] Z. Liu, Y. Yang, W. Liang, B. Guan, L. Kong, and P. Song, “Enhanced Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction Activity Using a Bi₄V₂O₁₁/Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube/g-C₃N₄ S-Scheme Heterojunction,” Applied Surface Science 665 (2024): 160057.

[98] X. Li, J. Yu, M. Jaroniec, and X. Chen, “Cocatalysts for Selective Photoreduction of CO₂ Into Solar Fuels,” Chemical Reviews 119, no. 6 (2019): 3962–4179.

[99] V. D. B. C. Dasireddy, B. Likozar, and J. Valand, “Preferential Oxidation of CO in H₂/H₂O/CO₂ Water-Gas Shift Feedstocks Over Cu-Based Carbon Nanotubes-Supported Heterogeneous Catalysts,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 237 (2018): 1044–1058.

[100] S. Liu, Q. Ye, Q. Li, et al., “Enhancing Interfacial Charge Transfer Efficiency via π-π Interaction in PTA/VC-CN S-Scheme Heterojunction for Efficient Photocatalytic CO₂ Conversion,” Chemical Engineering Journal 519 (2025): 164987.

[101] Y. Yang, J. Jiang, Y.-N. Feng, et al., “Manipulating D-Band Center and D-P Orbital Coupling to Mitigate Adsorption–Desorption Trade-Off for Efficient CO₂-to-CO Photoreduction Over MOF Nanofibers,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 379 (2025): 125643.

[102] Y. Yang, M. Qiu, and L. Liu, “TiO₂ Nanorod Array@Carbon Cloth Photocatalyst for CO₂ Reduction,” Ceramics International 42, no. 13 (2016): 15081–15086.

[103] Y. Wang, S. Wang, and X. W. Lou, “Dispersed Nickel Cobalt Oxyphosphide Nanoparticles Confined in Multichannel Hollow Carbon Fibers for Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58, no. 48 (2019): 17236–17240.

[104] P. Lin, X. Qu, B. J. Deka, et al., “Engineering ZIF-67 Loaded Nanofibrous Membrane With Thermal Stabilization Treatment for Efficient Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Chemical Engineering Journal 489 (2024): 151268.

[105] Y. Wang, G. Xu, C. Xue, C. Zhang, J. Xue, and X. Zhang, “Self-Nitrogen-Doped Hierarchical Porous Carbon Spheres as Metal-Free Catalyst for Efficient Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Separation and Purification Technology 342 (2024): 127008.

[106] K. Shi, H. Meng, J. Liu, S. Ma, and W. Tang, “Synergistic Contact-Electro-Catalysis and Photocatalysis via TiO₂@PTFE Composites for Efficient N₂ to NH₃ Conversion,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 47 (2025): e202515707.

[107] Y. Li, R. Li, Z. Sun, et al., “Promoted Photocatalytic N₂ Fixation to Ammonia Over Floatable TiO₂/Bi/Carbon Cloth Through Relay Pathway,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 664 (2024): 198–209.

[108] Z. Cheng, J. Wang, P. Westerhoff, et al., “Coupling LED-Irradiated Photocatalyst-Embedded Hierarchically Porous Polymeric Optical Fibers With Residual Chlorine for Enhanced Emerging Contaminants Degradation in Decentralized Water Treatment System,” Environmental Science & Technology 60, no. 1 (2026): 1378–1391.

[109] L. Qi, H. Zhang, Y. Yang, et al., “Coupled Electron Delocalization and Multi-Dimensional Porosity Engineering in TiO₂ Hollow Spheres-Embedded Carbon Nanofiber Aerogels for Efficient Photocatalytic Aniline Degradation,” Chemical Engineering Journal 515 (2025): 163690.

[110] Z. Xu, W. Chen, X. Liu, et al., “Ultrastrong and Superelastic Infrared Radiation Shield Device Constructed from Ceramic Meta-Aerogel Sustaining High Temperatures up to 1500°C,” Advanced Fiber Materials 8, no. 3 (2026): 979–988.

[111] X. Tang, W. Hong, H. Gao, et al., “Dual-Gradient Impedance/Insulation Structured Polyimide Nonwoven Fabric for Multi-Band Compatible Stealth,” Nano-Micro Letters 18, no. 1 (2026): 130.

[112] A. Pal, S. Suresh, A. Khan, et al., “Metal-Organic Frameworks as Thermocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Generation and Environmental Antibacterial Applications,” Science Advances 11, no. 2 (2025): eads4711.

[113] N. Mahmoudi and A. Simchi, ““On the Biological Performance of Graphene Oxide-Modified Chitosan/Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone Nanocomposite Membranes: In Vitro and In Vivo Effects of Graphene Oxide,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 70 (2017): 121–131.

[114] R. Wu, H. E. Delgado, Y. Xie, et al., “Distributed Direct Air Capture by Carbon Nanofiber Air Filters,” Science Advances 11, no. 42 (2025): eadv6846.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.