Metal-Organic Framework-Based Materials for Zinc-Halogen (Br₂, I₂) Batteries: Mechanisms and Performance

Abstract

Zinc–bromine and zinc–iodine batteries have been widely regarded as promising systems for large-scale energy storage, yet their practical application is currently hampered by slow redox reactions, low efficiency due to the shuttle effect, and zinc dendrite growth. In this review, we overview the contribution of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and MOF-derived materials to overcoming these drawbacks. Two typical strategies are presented: assembling pristine MOFs as selective porous barriers to confine polyhalides and MOF-templated carbon materials, including single-atom catalysts for enhanced conductivities and fast charge transfer. We show that pristine MOFs exhibit interesting selectivity properties but rarely meet the required chemical stability in acidic electrolytes. However, MOF-based carbons are more stable and conductive, but their performance requires careful regulation of synthesis conditions to maintain active sites. Overall, it seems most promising to develop bifunctional hosts that are conductive carbon frameworks embedded with single-atom metal sites, which both trap adsorbed halogen species and catalyze their decomposition. This review highlights the critical developments required to progress from promising electrochemical data in the laboratory to practical high-capacity battery electrodes.

Keywords

flow-batteries / MOFs / SACs / Zn-bromine battery / Zn-iodine battery

References

[1] N. S. Alghamdi, M. Rana, X. Peng, et al., “Zinc–Bromine Rechargeable Batteries: From Device Configuration, Electrochemistry, Material to Performance Evaluation,” Nano-Micro Letters 15 (2023): 209.

[2] J. Yang, B. Yin, Y. Sun, et al., “Zinc Anode for Mild Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives,” Nano-Micro Letters 14 (2022): 42.

[3] C. Chen, C.-S. Lee, and Y. Tang, “Fundamental Understanding and Optimization Strategies for Dual-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Nano-Micro Letters 15 (2023): 121.

[4] P. Leung, X. Li, C. Ponce de León, L. Berlouis, C. T. J. Low, and F. C. Walsh, “Progress in Redox Flow Batteries, Remaining Challenges and Their Applications in Energy Storage,” RSC Advances 2 (2012): 10125–10156.

[5] T. M. Gür, “Review of Electrical Energy Storage Technologies, Materials and Systems: Challenges and Prospects for Large-Scale Grid Storage,” Energy & Environmental Science 11 (2018): 2696–2767.

[6] S. Ahmed, A. Mahmood, A. Hasan, G. A. S. Sidhu, and M. F. U. Butt, “A Comparative Review of China, India and Pakistan Renewable Energy Sectors and Sharing Opportunities,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016): 216–225.

[7] C. Wu, X. Tong, Y. Ai, et al., “A Review: Enhanced Anodes of Li/Na-Ion Batteries Based on Yolk–Shell Structured Nanomaterials,” Nano-Micro Letters 10 (2018): 40.

[8] W. W. Q. Luo, B. Li, X. Wei, L. Li, and Z. Yang, “Recent Progress in Redox Flow Battery Research and Development,” Advanced Functional Materials 36 (2026): 970–986.

[9] R. Ye, D. Henkensmeier, S. J. Yoon, et al., “Redox Flow Batteries for Energy Storage: A Technology Review,” Journal of Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage 15 (2018): 010801.

[10] T. Raj, K. Chandrasekhar, A. N. Kumar, et al., “Recycling of Cathode Material From Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Future Perspectives,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 429 (2022): 128312.

[11] N. Alias and A. A. Mohamad, “Advances of Aqueous Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Battery: A Review,” Journal of Power Sources 274 (2015): 237–251.

[12] R. Guduru and J. Icaza, “A Brief Review on Multivalent Intercalation Batteries With Aqueous Electrolytes,” Nanomaterials 6 (2016): 41.

[13] R. A. Huggins, “Review—A New Class of High Rate, Long Cycle Life, Aqueous Electrolyte Battery Electrodes,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 164 (2017): A5031–A5036.

[14] Y. Gan, C. Wang, J. Li, et al., “Stability Optimization Strategies of Cathode Materials for Aqueous Zinc Ion Batteries: A Mini Review,” Frontiers in Chemistry 9 (2022): 828119.

[15] D. P. K. Nayak, L. Yang, W. Brehm, and P. Adelhelm, “From Lithium-Ion to Sodium-Ion Batteries: Advantages, Challenges, and Surprises,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57 (2018): 102–120.

[16] Y. Yang, Y. Tang, G. Fang, et al., “Li+ Intercalated V₂O₅·nH₂O With Enlarged Layer Spacing and Fast Ion Diffusion as an Aqueous Zinc-Ion Battery Cathode,” Energy & Environmental Science 11 (2018): 3157–3162.

[17] H. Li, L. Ma, C. Han, et al., “Advanced Rechargeable Zinc-Based Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives,” Nano Energy 62 (2019): 550–587.

[18] W. Chen, G. Li, A. Pei, et al., “A Manganese–Hydrogen Battery With Potential for Grid-Scale Energy Storage,” Nature Energy 3 (2018): 428–435.

[19] J. Huang, J. Zhou, and S. Liang, “Guest Pre-Intercalation Strategy to Boost the Electrochemical Performance of Aqueous Zinc-Ion Battery Cathodes,” Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica 37 (2021): 2005020.

[20] C. Yang, J. Chen, X. Ji, et al., “Aqueous Li-Ion Battery Enabled by Halogen Conversion–Intercalation Chemistry in Graphite,” Nature 569 (2019): 245–260.

[21] Y. Yang, S. Liang, and J. Zhou, “Progress and Prospect of the Zinc–Iodine Battery,” Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 30 (2021): 100761.

[22] A. Khor, P. K. Leung, M. R. Mohamed, C. Flox, Q. Xu, and A. Shah, “Review of Zinc-Based Hybrid Flow Batteries: From Fundamentals to Applications,” Materials Today 8 (2018): 80–108.

[23] M. C. Wu, T. S. Zhao, L. Wei, H. R. Jiang, and R. H. Zhang, “Improved Electrolyte for Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 384 (2018): 232–239.

[24] A. Mahmood, Z. Zheng, and Y. Chen, “Zinc–Bromine Batteries: Challenges, Prospective Solutions, and Future,” Advanced Science 11 (2024): 2305561.

[25] H. S. Lim, A. M. Lackner, and R. C. Knechtli, “Zinc-Bromine Secondary Battery,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 124 (1977): 1154–1157.

[26] L. She, H. Cheng, Z. Yuan, et al., “Rechargeable Aqueous Zinc–Halogen Batteries: Fundamental Mechanisms, Research Issues, and Future Perspectives,” Advanced Science 11 (2024): 2305061.

[27] D. Lin and Y. Li, “Recent Advances of Aqueous Rechargeable Zinc-Iodine Batteries: Challenges, Solutions, and Prospects,” Advanced Materials 34 (2022): e2108856.

[28] S. Liu, J. Wu, J. Huang, X. Chi, J. Yang, and Y. Liu, “A High-Energy Efficiency Static Membrane-Free Zinc–Bromine Battery Enabled by a High Concentration Hybrid Electrolyte,” Sustainable Energy & Fuels 6 (2022): 1148–1155.

[29] M. Li, J. Wu, H. Li, and Y. Wang, “Suppressing the Shuttle Effect of Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries: Progress and Prospects,” Materials 17 (2024): 1646.

[30] H. Wang, A. Zhou, Z. Hu, et al., “Toward Simultaneous Dense Zinc Deposition and Broken Side-Reaction Loops in the Zn//V₂O₅ System,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202318928.

[31] Z. Bai, G. Wang, H. Liu, et al., “Advancements in Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries: A Review,” Chemical Science 15 (2024): 3071–3092.

[32] S. Biswas, A. Senju, R. Mohr, et al., “Minimal Architecture Zinc–Bromine Battery for Low Cost Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Energy & Environmental Science 10 (2017): 114–120.

[33] K. W. Knehr, R. Buline, T. Baldwin, et al., “Optimization and Design of the Minimal Architecture Zinc-Bromine Battery Using Insight From a Levelized Cost of Storage Model,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 165 (2018): A4041–A4050.

[34] K. W. Knehr, S. Biswas, and D. A. Steingart, “Quantification of the Voltage Losses in the Minimal Architecture Zinc-Bromine Battery Using GITT and EIS,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 164 (2017): A3101–A3108.

[35] B. Plackett, “A Conversation With Thomas Maschmeyer,” ACS Central Science 7 (2021): 1957–1958.

[36] C. Dai, L. Hu, X. Jin, et al., “Fast Constructing Polarity-Switchable Zinc-Bromine Microbatteries With High Areal Energy Density,” Science Advances 8 (2022): eabo6688.

[37] C. Xie, H. Zhang, W. Xu, W. Wang, and X. Li, “A Long Cycle Life, Self-Healing Zinc–Iodine Flow Battery With High Power Density,” Angewandte Chemie 130 (2018): 11341–11346.

[38] L. Zhang, H. Ding, H. Gao, et al., “An Integrated Design for High-Energy, Durable Zinc–Iodine Batteries With Ultra-high Recycling Efficiency,” Energy and Environmental Science 18 (2025): 2462–2473.

[39] J. Zhang, G. Jiang, P. Xu, et al., “An All-Aqueous Redox Flow Battery With Unprecedented Energy Density,” Energy & Environmental Science 11 (2018): 2010–2015.

[40] S. Zhang, H. Jiang, S. Liu, et al., “Regulated Adsorption Capability by Interface–Electric–Field Enabling Promoted Electrochemical Kinetics of Zinc–Bromine Flow Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 486 (2024): 150317.

[41] Z. Bai, G. Wang, H. Liu, et al., “Advancements in Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries: A Review,” Chemical Science 15 (2024): 3071–3092.

[42] M. Mousavi, G. Jiang, J. Zhang, et al., “Decoupled Low-Cost Ammonium-Based Electrolyte Design for Highly Stable Zinc–Iodine Redox Flow Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 32 (2020): 465–476.

[43] Y. Yao, J. Lei, Y. Shi, F. Ai, and Y. C. Lu, “Assessment Methods and Performance Metrics for Redox Flow Batteries,” Nature Energy 6 (2021): 582–588.

[44] M. Park, J. Ryu, W. Wang, and J. Cho, “Material Design and Engineering of Next-Generation Flow-Battery Technologies,” Nature Reviews Materials 2 (2017): 16080.

[45] Z. Wang, L. Y. S. Tam, and Y. C. Lu, “Flexible Solid Flow Electrodes for High-Energy Scalable Energy Storage,” Joule 3 (2019): 1677–1688.

[46] A. Arif, X. Yan, A. Mansoor, et al., “Metal–Organic Frameworks: Multifunctional Materials for High-Performance Zn–Halogen Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 18 (2026): 238.

[47] P. J. Lex and J. F. Matthews, “Recent Developments in Zinc/Bromine Battery Technology at Johnson Controls,” in IEEE 35th International Power Sources Symposium (1992), 88–92.

[48] Q. Lai, H. Zhang, X. Li, L. Zhang, and Y. Cheng, “A Novel Single Flow Zinc–Bromine Battery With Improved Energy Density,” Journal of Power Sources 235 (2013): 1–4.

[49] L. Tang, W. Lu, H. Zhang, and X. Li, “Progress and Perspective of the Cathode Materials Towards Bromine-Based Flow Batteries,” Energy Material Advances 2022 (2022): 1–22.

[50] M. E. Easton, P. Turner, A. F. Masters, and T. Maschmeyer, “Zinc Bromide in Aqueous Solutions of Ionic Liquid Bromide Salts: The Interplay Between Complexation and Electrochemistry,” RSC Advances 5 (2015): 83674–83681.

[51] H.-X. Xiang, A.-D. Tan, J.-H. Piao, Z.-Y. Fu, and Z.-X. Liang, “Efficient Nitrogen-Doped Carbon for Zinc–Bromine Flow Battery,” Small 15 (2019): 1901848.

[52] C. Wang, X. Li, X. Xi, P. Xu, Q. Lai, and H. Zhang, “Relationship Between Activity and Structure of Carbon Materials for Br₂/Br^- in Zinc Bromine Flow Batteries,” RSC Advances 6 (2016): 40169–40174.

[53] M. C. Wu, T. S. Zhao, H. R. Jiang, Y. K. Zeng, and Y. X. Ren, “High-Performance Zinc Bromine Flow Battery via Improved Design of Electrolyte and Electrode,” Journal of Power Sources 355 (2017): 62–68.

[54] Y. Popat, D. Trudgeon, C. Zhang, F. C. Walsh, P. Connor, and X. Li, “Carbon Materials as Positive Electrodes in Bromine-Based Flow Batteries,” ChemPlusChem 87 (2022): e202100441.

[55] Z. Xu, Q. Fan, Y. Li, J. Wang, and P. D. Lund, “Review of Zinc Dendrite Formation in Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Battery,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 127 (2020): 109838.

[56] C. Wang, Q. Lai, K. Feng, P. Xu, X. Li, and H. Zhang, “From Zeolite-Type Metal Organic Framework to Porous Nano-Sheet Carbon: High Activity Positive Electrode Material for Bromine-Based Flow Batteries,” Nano Energy 44 (2018): 240–247.

[57] J. H. Lee, Y. Byun, G. H. Jeong, C. Choi, and J. Kwen, “Zinc–Bromine Batteries: High-Energy Efficiency Membraneless Flowless Zn–Br Battery: Utilizing the Electrochemical–Chemical Growth of Polybromides (Adv. Mater. 52/2019),” Advanced Materials 31 (2019): 1970366.

[58] C. Wang, X. Li, X. Xi, W. Zhou, Q. Lai, and H. Zhang, “Bimodal Highly Ordered Mesostructure Carbon With High Activity for Br₂/Br^- Redox Couple in Bromine Based Batteries,” Nano Energy 21 (2016): 217–227.

[59] C. Wang, X. Li, X. Xi, W. Zhou, Q. Lai, and H. Zhang, “Bimodal Highly Ordered Mesostructure Carbon With High Activity for Br₂/Br^- Redox Couple in Bromine Based Batteries,” Nano Energy 21 (2016): 217–227.

[60] L. Tang, T. Li, W. Lu, and X. Li, “Lamella-Like Electrode With High Br₂-Entrapping Capability and Activity Enabled by Adsorption and Spatial Confinement Effects for Bromine-Based Flow Battery,” Science Bulletin 67 (2022): 1362–1371.

[61] H. Wei, G. Qu, X. Zhang, et al., “Boosting Aqueous Non-Flow Zinc–Bromine Batteries With a Two-Dimensional Metal–Organic Framework Host: An Adsorption-Catalysis Approach,” Energy & Environmental Science 16 (2023): 4073–4083.

[62] M. C. Wu, R. H. Zhang, K. Liu, J. Sun, K. Y. Chan, and T. S. Zhao, “Mesoporous Carbon Derived From Pomelo Peel as a High-Performance Electrode Material for Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 442 (2019): 227255.

[63] R. Pandiyan Naresh, K. Mariyappan, K. Selvakumar Archana, S. Suresh, and D. Ditty, “Activated Carbon-Anchored 3D Carbon Network for Bromine Activity and Its Enhanced Electrochemical Performance in Zn-Br₂ Hybrid Redox Flow Battery,” ChemElectroChem 6 (2019): 5688–5697.

[64] S. Suresh, M. Ulaganathan, and R. Pitchai, “Realizing Highly Efficient Energy Retention of Zn–Br₂ Redox Flow Battery Using rGO Supported 3D Carbon Network as a Superior Electrode,” Journal of Power Sources 438 (2019): 226998.

[65] M. A. Nazir, M. S. Javed, M. Islam, et al., “MOF@Graphene Nanocomposites for Energy and Environment Applications,” Composites Communications 45 (2024): 101783.

[66] Y. Munaiah, S. Suresh, S. Dheenadayalan, V. K. Pillai, and P. Ragupathy, “Comparative Electrocatalytic Performance of Single-Walled and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes for Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Batteries,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 118 (2014): 14795–14804.

[67] Y. Munaiah, S. Dheenadayalan, P. Ragupathy, and V. K. Pillai, “High Performance Carbon Nanotube Based Electrodes for Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Batteries,” ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology 2 (2013): M3182.

[68] N. Venkatesan, K. S. Archana, S. Suresh, R. Aswathy, M. Ulaganthan, and P. Periasamy, “Boron-Doped Graphene as Efficient Electrocatalyst for Zinc-Bromine Redox Flow Batteries,” ChemElectroChem 6 (2019): 1107–1114.

[69] Y. Munaiah, P. Ragupathy, and V. K. Pillai, “Single-Step Synthesis of Halogenated Graphene Through Electrochemical Exfoliation and Its Utilization as Electrodes for Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Battery,” Journal of The Electrochemical Society 163 (2016): A2899–A2910.

[70] K. Mariyappan, R. Velmurugan, B. Subramanian, P. Ragupathy, and M. Ulaganathan, “Low Loading of Pt@Graphite Felt for Enhancing Multifunctional Activity Towards Achieving High Energy Efficiency of Zn–Br₂ Redox Flow Battery,” Journal of Power Sources 482 (2021): 228912.

[71] Y. Hou, F. Kong, Z. Wang, et al., “High Performance Rechargeable Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Batteries via a Double Iodine Species Fixation Strategy With Mesoporous Carbon and Modified Separator,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 629 (2023): 279–287.

[72] K. Mariyappan, T. Mahalakshmi, T. S. Roshni, P. Ragupathy, and M. Ulaganathan, “Nanocatalyzed PtNi Alloy Intact @3D Graphite Felt as an Effective Electrode for Super Power Redox Flow Battery,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 10 (2023): 2202007.

[73] C. Wang, W. Lu, Q. Lai, P. Xu, H. Zhang, and X. Li, “A TiN Nanorod Array 3D Hierarchical Composite Electrode for Ultrahigh-Power-Density Bromine-Based Flow Batteries,” Advanced Materials 31 (2019): 1904690.

[74] B. P. Williams, G. L. Shebert, and Y. L. Joo, “Metal Oxide Coatings on Carbon Electrodes With Large Mesopores for Deeply Charged Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Batteries,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 166 (2019): A2245–A2254.

[75] X. Li, M. Li, K. Luo, et al., “Lattice Matching and Halogen Regulation for Synergistically Induced Uniform Zinc Electrodeposition by Halogenated Ti₃C₂ MXenes,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 813–822.

[76] J. Guo, G. Ma, G. Liu, C. Dai, and Z. Lin, “Ti₂CT_xMXene Cathode Host for Enhanced Zinc-Bromine Battery Performance,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2304516.

[77] H. K. Machhi, K. K. Sonigara, S. N. Bariya, H. P. Soni, and S. S. Soni, “Hierarchically Porous Metal–Organic Gel Hosting Catholyte for Limiting Iodine Diffusion and Self-Discharge Control in Sustainable Aqueous Zinc–I₂ Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13 (2021): 21426–21435.

[78] S. J. Zhang, J. Hao, and H. Li, “Polyiodide Confinement by Starch Enables Shuttle-Free Zn–Iodine Batteries,” Advanced Materials 32 (2022): 2201716.

[79] H. Pan, B. Li, D. Mei, et al., “Controlling Solid–Liquid Conversion Reactions for a Highly Reversible Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Battery,” ACS Energy Letters 2 (2017): 2674–2680.

[80] C. Bai, F. Cai, L. Wang, S. Guo, X. Liu, and Z. Yuan, “A Sustainable Aqueous Zn-I₂ Battery,” Nano Research 11 (2018): 3548–3554.

[81] X. Miao, Q. Chen, Y. Liu, et al., “Performance Comparison of Electro-Polymerized Polypyrrole and Polyaniline as Cathodes for Iodine Redox Reaction in Zinc-Iodine Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 415 (2022): 140206.

[82] D. Yu, A. Kumar, T. A. Nguyen, M. T. Nazir, and G. Yasin, “High-Voltage and Ultrastable Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Battery Enabled by N-Doped Carbon Materials: Revealing the Contributions of Nitrogen Configurations,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8 (2020): 13769–13776.

[83] D. Lin, D. Rao, S. Chiovoloni, S. Wang, J. Q. Lu, and Y. Li, “Prototypical Study of Double-Layered Cathodes for Aqueous Rechargeable Static Zn–I₂ Batteries,” Nano Letters 21 (2021): 4129–4135.

[84] L. Ma, Y. Ying, S. Chen, et al., “Electrocatalytic Iodine Reduction Reaction Enabled by Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Battery With Improved Power and Energy Densities,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 3791–3798.

[85] L. Gao, Z. Li, Y. Zou, et al., “A High-Performance Aqueous Zinc-Bromine Static Battery,” iScience 23 (2020): 101348.

[86] L. da Silva Lima, M. Quartier, A. Buchmayr, et al., “Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-Ion Batteries and Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries-Based Renewable Energy Storage Systems,” Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 46 (2021): 101286.

[87] D. Xiao, X. Lv, J. Fan, Q. Li, and Z. Chen, “Zn-Based Batteries for Energy Storage,” Energy Materials 3 (2023): 300007.

[88] C. Ponce de León, A. Frías-Ferrer, J. González-García, D. A. Szánto, and F. C. Walsh, “Redox Flow Cells for Energy Conversion,” Journal of Power Sources 160 (2006): 716–732.

[89] O. M. Yaghi and H. Li, “Hydrothermal Synthesis of a Metal-Organic Framework Containing Large Rectangular Channels,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 117 (1995): 10401–10402.

[90] G. Xu, P. Nie, H. Dou, B. Ding, L. Li, and X. Zhang, “Exploring Metal Organic Frameworks for Energy Storage in Batteries and Supercapacitors,” Materials Today 20 (2017): 191–209.

[91] Q. He, J. Liu, Z. Li, et al., “Solvent-Free Synthesis of Uniform MOF Shell-Derived Carbon Confined SnO₂/Co Nanocubes for Highly Reversible Lithium Storage,” Small 13 (2017): 1701504.

[92] F. Zheng, Y. Yang, and Q. Chen, “High Lithium Anodic Performance of Highly Nitrogen-Doped Porous Carbon Prepared From a Metal-Organic Framework,” Nature Communications 5 (2014): 5261.

[93] B. Seoane, S. Castellanos, A. Dikhtiarenko, F. Kapteijn, and J. Gascon, “Multi-Scale Crystal Engineering of Metal Organic Frameworks,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 307 (2016): 147–187.

[94] A. Halder and D. Ghoshal, “Structure and Properties of Dynamic Metal–Organic Frameworks: A Brief Accounts of Crystalline-to-Crystalline and Crystalline-to-Amorphous Transformations,” CrystEngComm 20 (2018): 1322–1345.

[95] V. Bon, N. Kavoosi, I. Senkovska, et al., “Tuning the Flexibility in MOFs by SBU Functionalization,” Dalton Transactions 45 (2016): 4407–4415.

[96] A. E. Baumann, D. A. Burns, B. Liu, and V. S. Thoi, “Metal-Organic Framework Functionalization and Design Strategies for Advanced Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices,” Communications Chemistry 2 (2019): 86.

[97] H. Zhou, L. Zhang, D. Zhang, et al., “A Universal Synthetic Route to Carbon Nanotube/Transition Metal Oxide Nano-Composites for Lithium Ion Batteries and Electrochemical Capacitors,” Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 37752.

[98] Z. Chen, S. L. Hanna, L. R. Redfern, D. Alezi, T. Islamoglu, and O. K. Farha, “Reticular Chemistry in the Rational Synthesis of Functional Zirconium Cluster-Based MOFs,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 386 (2019): 32–49.

[99] L. Sun, C. H. Hendon, M. A. Minier, A. Walsh, and M. Dincă, “Million-Fold Electrical Conductivity Enhancement in Fe₂(DEBDC) Versus Mn₂(DEBDC) (E = S, O),” Journal of the American Chemical Society 137 (2015): 6164–6167.

[100] C.-W. Kung, A. E. Platero-Prats, R. J. Drout, et al., “Inorganic “Conductive Glass” Approach to Rendering Mesoporous Metal–Organic Frameworks Electronically Conductive and Chemically Responsive,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10 (2018): 30532–30540.

[101] T. C. Wang, I. Hod, C. O. Audu, et al., “Rendering High Surface Area, Mesoporous Metal–Organic Frameworks Electronically Conductive,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 9 (2017): 12584–12591.

[102] V. I. Isaeva and L. M. Kustov, “Microwave Activation as an Alternative Production of Metal-Organic Frameworks,” Russian Chemical Bulletin 65 (2016): 2103–2114.

[103] I. Thomas-Hillman, A. Laybourn, C. Dodds, and S. W. Kingman, “Realising the Environmental Benefits of Metal–Organic Frameworks: Recent Advances in Microwave Synthesis,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6 (2018): 11564–11581.

[104] U. Mueller, M. Schubert, F. Teich, H. Puetter, K. Schierle-Arndt, and J. Pastré, “Metal–Organic Frameworks—Prospective Industrial Applications,” Journal of Materials Chemistry 16 (2006): 626–636.

[105] R. Ameloot, L. Stappers, J. Fransaer, L. Alaerts, B. F. Sels, and D. E. De Vos, “Patterned Growth of Metal-Organic Framework Coatings by Electrochemical Synthesis,” Chemistry of Materials 21 (2009): 2580–2582.

[106] K. B. Lausund and O. Nilsen, “All-Gas-Phase Synthesis of UiO-66 Through Modulated Atomic Layer Deposition,” Nature Communications 7 (2016): 13578.

[107] J. Zhao, B. Gong, W. T. Nunn, et al., “Conformal and Highly Adsorptive Metal–Organic Framework Thin Films via Layer-by-Layer Growth on ALD-Coated Fiber Mats,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3 (2015): 1458–1464.

[108] S. R. Kim, B. Joarder, J. A. Hurd, et al., “Achieving Superprotonic Conduction in Metal–Organic Frameworks Through Iterative Design Advances,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 140 (2018): 1077–1082.

[109] L. Shen, H. B. Wu, F. Liu, et al., “Creating Lithium-Ion Electrolytes With Biomimetic Ionic Channels in Metal–Organic Frameworks,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): 1707476.

[110] H. Wei, G. Qu, X. Zhang, et al., “Boosting Aqueous Non-Flow Zinc–Bromine Batteries With a Two-Dimensional Metal–Organic Framework Host: An Adsorption-Catalysis Approach,” Energy & Environmental Science 16 (2023): 4073–4083.

[111] B. Li, J. Liu, and Z. Nie, “Metal–Organic Frameworks as Highly Active Electrocatalysts for High-Energy Density, Aqueous Zinc-Polyiodide Redox Flow Batteries,” Nano Letters 16 (2025): 4335–4340.

[112] R. Naresh, K. Satchidhanandam, K. R. Ilancheran, B. Ambrose, M. Kathiresan, and P. Ragupathy, “Bimetallic Metal–Organic Framework: An Efficient Electrocatalyst for Bromine-Based Flow Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12 (2024): 14669–14678.

[113] D. Kong, W. Lv, R. Liu, et al., “Superstructured Carbon Materials: Design and Energy Applications,” Energy Materials and Devices 1 (2023): 9370017.

[114] X. Wang, Q. Zhang, S. Chu, et al., “Fe/N Co-Doped Micro-Mesoporous Carbon Nanofibers as High-Performance Catalysts for Zinc-bromine Flow Batteries,” Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 35 (2025): 955–962.

[115] L. Chai, X. Wang, Y. Hu, et al., “In-MOF-Derived Hierarchically Hollow Carbon Nanostraws for Advanced Zinc-Iodine Batteries,” Advanced Science 9 (2022): 2105063.

[116] N. Li, Z. Yang, Y. Li, et al., “Size Confinement Strategy Effect Enables Advanced Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2402846.

[117] Y. Wu, Y. Qian, C. Huang, et al., “Hierarchical Porous Soft Carbon Host for the Cathode of an Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Battery With Ultra-Long Cycle Life,” Electrochimica Acta 460 (2023): 142593.

[118] Y.-H. Lee, K. Shin, J. Baek, and H.-T. Kim, “Boosting the Kinetics of Bromine Cathode in Zn–Br Flow Battery by Enhancing the Electrode Adsorption of the Droplet of Bromine Sequestration Agent/Polybromides Complex,” Journal of Power Sources 620 (2024): 235219.

[119] J. Sun, H. Ma, and D. Wang, “Heavily Heteroatoms Doped Carbons With Tunable Microstructure as the Iodine Hosts for Rechargeable Zinc-Iodine Aqueous Batteries,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 947 (2023): 169696.

[120] J. Xu, J. Wang, L. Ge, et al., “ZIF-8 Derived Porous Carbon to Mitigate Shuttle Effect for High Performance Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 610 (2022): 98–105.

[121] S. Chen, Y. He, S. Ding, and J. Zhang, “In Situ Formation of Tungsten Nitride Among Porous Carbon Polyhedra for High Performance Zinc–Iodine Batteries,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 127 (2023): 7609–7617.

[122] T. Liu, H. Wang, C. Lei, et al., “Recognition of the Catalytic Activities of Graphitic N for Zinc-Iodine Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 53 (2022): 544–551.

[123] J. Zhang, X. Ji, Q. Yu, et al., “Enabling a Reversible Six-Electron Redox Reaction Based on I^-/I⁺ and Br^-/Br⁰ for Aqueous Zinc-Bromine Batteries,” Chemistry 7 (2025): 75.

[124] J. Li, Z. Xu, and M. Wu, “Reaction Kinetics and Mass Transfer Synergistically Enhanced Electrodes for High-Performance Zinc–Bromine Flow Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 17 (2025): 25206–25215.

[125] S. Chen, J. Ma, Q. Chen, W. Shang, J. Liu, and J. Zhang, “Exploring Interfacial Electrocatalysis for Iodine Redox Conversion in Zinc-Iodine Battery,” Science Bulletin 70 (2025): 546–555.

[126] X. Guo, H. Xu, Y. Tang, et al., “Confining Iodine Into Metal-Organic Framework Derived Metal-Nitrogen-Carbon for Long-Life Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Batteries,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2408317.

[127] Y. Li, L. Li, W. Xu, Y. Zhong, and X. Pu, “Promoted Efficiency of Zinc Bromine Flow Batteries With Catalytic Co-N-C Composite Cathode,” Journal of Power Sources 599 (2024): 234208.

[128] W. Han, J. Zhao, and X. Li, “Long Cycle Life Zn-I₂ Batteries: Utilizing Co/N Co-Doped Carbon Matrix Derived From Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-67 as a Bifunctional Iodine Host,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 1008 (2024): 176647.

[129] H. Zhong, C. Zeng, J. Lai, et al., “Enhanced Oxygen Evolution by Activating Vacancy Defects on Metal–Organic Framework-Derived Co₃O₄/NC,” Carbon Neutralization 4 (2025): e70030.

[130] Y. Li, X. Guo, S. Wang, et al., “Nano/Micro Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Porous Carbon With Rich Nitrogen Sites as Efficient Iodine Hosts for Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Batteries,” Advanced Science 12 (2025): 2502563.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.