Graphene–Based Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials: From Scalable Synthesis, Interfacial Mechanism to Emerging Biomedical Applications

Abstract

Graphene–based porous two-dimensional (2D) materials are pivotal for advanced health, yet their translation faces three intertwined bottlenecks: scalable synthesis, quantifiable biological risks, and cradle-to-grave sustainability. Emerging paradigms now focus on developing green, surface–engineered porous nanomaterials that simultaneously display high biocompatibility, minimal cytotoxicity, and potent anticoagulant activity, enabling seamless deployment across in vitro diagnostics, targeted drug delivery, antimicrobial coatings, photothermal and gene therapies, and multimodal bioimaging. For the first time in a decade of numerous reviews on graphene's biomedical applications, this review focuses specifically on porous graphene two-dimensional materials. It systematically addresses three intertwined challenges and their solutions: controllable synthesis, biological risks, and full-lifecycle sustainability. We specifically highlight state-of-the-art functionalization strategies for porous nanomaterial preparation (e.g., mechanical exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition, oxidation–reduction, liquid-phase exfoliation, electrochemical exfoliation and SiC epitaxial growth method), alongside their potential risks to the human body, particularly interface mechanism with cell membranes, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), proteins, enzymes, cells, tissues, and organs. Current limitations and future research directions are critically discussed, emphasizing the role as a sustainable porous 2D nanomaterial platform. Beyond addressing healthcare challenges, high–performing graphene–based 2D nanomaterials unlock transformative opportunities for next-generation technologies.

Keywords

biomedical / graphene / healthcare / nanomaterial / scalable synthesis

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