Recent Advances in Elemental Red Phosphorus-Based Photocatalysts for Solar Driven Hydrogen Production

Abstract

The development of efficient photocatalyst materials is crucial for solar hydrogen production through photocatalytic water splitting. Recently, earth-abundant elemental red phosphorus (RP) materials with broader light absorption ability and appropriate band structure characteristics have been considered as promising metal-free photocatalysts. Herein, this review seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the progress achieved so far in the utilization of RP-based photocatalysts for solar driven hydrogen production applications. It starts off with a summary of the discovery, crystal and electronic structures of various RP allotropes, including amorphous, type Ⅱ, Hittorf's and fibrous phosphorus materials. Subsequently, the synthesis strategies of RP and RP-based materials utilized in photocatalysis were discussed. Furthermore, the elemental RP, and the modification of RP with cocatalyst and other semiconductors were examined to ascertain its potential in efficient photocatalytic hydrogen production. Finally, an overview and outlook on the challenges and future avenues in designing and constructing advanced visible-light-driven RP-based photocatalysts were also proposed.

Keywords

heterostructure / hydrogen production / photocatalyst / red phosphorus / water splitting

References

[1] X. Chen, S. Shen, L. Guo, and S. S. Mao, “Semiconductor-Based Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation,” Chemical Reviews 110 (2010): 6503–6570.

[2] Z. Hu, Z. Shen, and J. C. Yu, “Phosphorus Containing Materials for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Green Chemistry 19 (2017): 588–613.

[3] Y. Kumar, R. Kumar, P. Raizada, et al., “Recent Progress on Elemental Sulfur Based Photocatalysts for Energy and Environmental Applications,” Chemosphere 305 (2022): 135477.

[4] R. Li, J. Luan, Y. Zhang, et al., “A Review of Efficient Photocatalytic Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 206 (2024): 114863.

[5] C. Wu, L. Jing, J. Deng, et al., “Elemental Red Phosphorus-Based Photocatalysts For Environmental Remediation: A Review,” Chemosphere 274 (2021): 129793.

[6] X. Guo, B. Du, W. Yan, Y. Wu, J. Feng, and Y. Zhu, “Efficient Activation of Peroxymonosulfate by Sulfur Vacancies Engineered NiCo₂S₄ Spheres for Norfloxacin Degradation,” Environmental Research 283 (2025): 122129.

[7] Y. Cheng, P. Fu, Z. Yu, et al., “Modulation of the Multiphase Phosphorus/Sulfide Heterogeneous Interface via Rare Earth for Solar-Enhanced Water Splitting At Industrial-Level Current Densities,” Carbon Neutralization 3 (2024): 873–887.

[8] P. Dong, C. Wang, L. Zhang, J. Pan, B. Zhang, and J. Zhang, “Unraveling the Key Factors on Structure–Property–Activity Correlations for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production of Covalent Organic Frameworks,” ACS Catalysis 14 (2024): 17794–17805.

[9] A. Fujishima and K. Honda, “Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode,” Nature 238 (1972): 37–38.

[10] Q. Guo, C. Zhou, Z. Ma, and X. Yang, “Fundamentals of TiO₂ Photocatalysis: Concepts, Mechanisms, and Challenges,” Advanced Materials 31 (2019): 1901997.

[11] X. Yang, Y. Luo, J. Xue, et al., “Photoelectrochemical Glycerol Oxidation to High Value-Added Products over BiVO₄/CuWO₄ Heterojunction Photoanodes,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 688 (2025): 317–327.

[12] H. Zhang, X. Yao, W. Shan, Y. Liu, and H. Tang, “Metallic 1T-MoS₂/ZnIn₂S₄ Heterojunction Photocatalysts for Enhanced Photoredox Reaction via Guiding Charge Migration,” Science China Materials 67 (2024): 532–540.

[13] R. Zhang, B. Zhang, J. Lv, et al., “Heteropore Conjugated Organic Reticular Subnano-Crystal for Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” Carbon Neutralization 4 (2025): e70016.

[14] W. Li, C. Men, D. Zhao, et al., “ZIF-67-Derived Co₃O₄ with Dynamic Active Sites Enabling SrTiO₃ for Efficient Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting,” ACS Materials Letters 7 (2025): 2422–2428.

[15] X. Guo, A. Sikandaier, C. An, and Y. Zhu. “Study on Adsorption Coupled Photocatalytic Reduction of Cr(Ⅵ) by Elemental Red Phosphorus,” Journal of Liaocheng University (Natural Science Edition) 38 (2025): 393–403.

[16] C. Guan, C. Li, C. Yang, et al., “Enhanced Renal Carcinoma Treatment via Synergistic Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy Using Hittorf's Phosphorus-Decorated Polymeric Carbon Nitride Heterostructure,” Advanced Optical Materials 12 (2024): 2303318.

[17] Z. Song, C. Guan, T. Li, et al., “Vaporization Phosphorization-Mediated Synthesis of Phosphorus-Doped TiO₂ Nanocomposites for Combined Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy of Renal Cell Carcinoma,” Journal of Materials Chemistry B 12 (2024): 4039–4052.

[18] S. A. Ansari, Z. Khan, M. O. Ansari, and M. H. Cho, “Earth-Abundant Stable Elemental Semiconductor Red Phosphorus-Based Hybrids for Environmental Remediation and Energy Storage Applications,” RSC Advances 6 (2016): 44616–44629.

[19] Y. Zhu, J. Ren, X. Zhang, and D. Yang, “Elemental Red Phosphorus-Based Materials for Photocatalytic Water Purification and Hydrogen Production,” Nanoscale 12 (2020): 13297–13310.

[20] J. Pan, A. Zhang, L. Zhang, and P. Dong, “Construction of S-Scheme Heterojunction From Protonated D-A Typed Polymer and MoS₂ for Efficient Photocatalytic H₂ Production,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 58 (2024): 180–193.

[21] J. Jiang, Y. Zhang, W. Sun, et al., “A Review of Updated Red Phosphorus-Based Photocatalysts,” Composite Functional Materials 1 (2025): 20250101.

[22] W. L. Roth, T. W. Dewitt, and A. J. Smith, “Polymorphism of Red Phosphorus,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 69 (1974): 2881–2885.

[23] H. Thurn and H. Kerbs, “Crystal Structure of Violet Phosphorus,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 5 (1966): 1047–1048.

[24] M. Ruck, D. Hoppe, B. Wahl, P. Simon, Y. Wang, and G. Seifert, “Fibrous Red Phosphorus,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 44 (2005): 7616–7619.

[25] S. Zhang, H. Qian, Z. Liu, et al., “Towards Unveiling the Exact Molecular Structure of Amorphous Red Phosphorus by Single-Molecule Studies,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (2019): 1659–1663.

[26] Y.-P. Yuan, S.-W. Cao, Y.-S. Liao, L.-S. Yin, and C. Xue, “Red phosphor/g-C₃N₄ Heterojunction With Enhanced Photocatalytic Activities for Solar Fuels Production,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 140–141 (2013): 164–168.

[27] Z. Hu, L. Yuan, Z. Liu, Z. Shen, and J. C. Yu, “An Elemental Phosphorus Photocatalyst With a Record High Hydrogen Evolution Efficiency,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 55 (2016): 9580–9585.

[28] Y. Zhu, J. Li, C.-L. Dong, et al., “Red Phosphorus Decorated and Doped TiO₂ Nanofibers for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution From Pure Water,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 255 (2019): 117764.

[29] Y. Zhu, C. Lv, Z. Yin, et al., “A [001]-Oriented Hittorf's Phosphorus Nanorods/Polymeric Carbon Nitride Heterostructure for Boosting Wide-Spectrum-Responsive Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution From Pure Water,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59 (2019): 868–873.

[30] G. Jia, M. Sun, Y. Wang, X. Cui, B. Huang, and J. C. Yu, “Enabling Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution via In Situ Loading of Ni Single Atomic Sites on Red Phosphorus Quantum Dots,” Advanced Functional Materials 33 (2022): 2212051.

[31] Y. Zhu, J. Ren, G. Huang, et al., “Red Phosphorus Grafted High-Index (116) Faceted Anatase TiO₂ for Z-Scheme Photocatalytic Pure Water Splitting,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2023): 2311623.

[32] J. Y. Yoon, Y. Lee, D. G. Kim, et al., “Type-II Red Phosphorus: Wavy Packing of Twisted Pentagonal Tubes,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): e202307102.

[33] B. Zhang, W. Chen, K. Tao, Z. Sun, Q. Li, and Q. Yan, “Assessing the Structural Diversity of Form II Red Phosphorus via Stepwise Crystal Structure Search,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 146 (2024): 26369–26378.

[34] J. Bian, W. Zhang, Y. H. Ng, et al., “Transforming Red Phosphorus Photocatalysis: Dual Roles of Pre-Anchored Ru Single Atoms in Defect and Interface Engineering,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202409179.

[35] X. Pei, J. Bian, W. Zhang, et al., “Overcoming Defect Limitations in Photocatalysis: Boron-Incorporation Engineered Crystalline Red Phosphorus for Enhanced Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2400542.

[36] F. Wang, W. K. H. Ng, J. C. Yu, et al., “Red Phosphorus: An Elemental Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Formation From Water,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 111–112 (2012): 409–414.

[37] S. Singh and S. K. Kansal, “Recent Progress in Red Phosphorus-Based Photocatalysts for Photocatalytic Water Remediation and Hydrogen Production,” Applied Materials Today 26 (2022): 101345.

[38] W. Hittorf, “Zur Kenntniss Des Phosphors,” Annalen der Physik 202 (2006): 193–228.

[39] Y.-L. Lu, S. Dong, W. Zhou, et al., “Hittorf's Violet Phosphorene as a Promising Candidate for Optoelectronic and Photocatalytic Applications: First-Principles Characterization,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 20 (2018): 11967–11975.

[40] Y.-L. Lu, S. Dong, J. Li, Y. Wu, L. Wang, and H. Zhao, “Fibrous Red Phosphorene: A Promising Two-Dimensional Optoelectronic and Photocatalytic Material With a Desirable Band Gap and High Carrier Mobility,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 22 (2020): 13713–13720.

[41] Z. Shen, Z. Hu, W. Wang, et al., “Crystalline Phosphorus Fibers: Controllable Synthesis and Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Activity,” Nanoscale 6 (2014): 14163–14167.

[42] J. B. Smith, D. Hagaman, D. DiGuiseppi, R. Schweitzer-Stenner, and H. Ji, “Ultra-Long Crystalline Red Phosphorus Nanowires From Amorphous Red Phosphorus Thin Films,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 55 (2016): 11829–11833.

[43] M. Jin, Y. Wang, M. Gu, et al., “Control of Crystal Growth to Obtain Needle-Shaped Violet Phosphorus With Excellent Photocatalytic Degradation Performance,” Nano Research 16 (2023): 3320–3325.

[44] Z. Chen, Y. Zhu, Q. Wang, et al., “Fibrous Phosphorus: A Promising Candidate as Anode for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 295 (2019): 230–236.

[45] S. Li, Y. H. Ng, R. Zhu, et al., “In Situ Construction of Elemental Phosphorus Nanorod-modified TiO₂ Photocatalysts for Efficient Visible-Light-Driven H₂ Generation,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 297 (2021): 120412.

[46] C. Bie, H. Yu, B. Cheng, W. Ho, J. Fan, and J. Yu, “Design, Fabrication, and Mechanism of Nitrogen-Doped Graphene-Based Photocatalyst,” Advanced Materials 33 (2021): 2003521.

[47] Z. Sun, B. Zhang, and Q. Yan, “Solution Phase Synthesis of the Less-Known Form II Crystalline Red Phosphorus,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 9 (2022): 4385–4393.

[48] Z. Duan, R. Li, H. Bian, et al., “Large-Scale Synthesis of Crystalline Phosphorus Nanosheets With Superior Air-water Stability and Flame-Retardancy Ability,” Chemical Engineering Journal 505 (2025): 159566.

[49] R. Zhao, S. Liu, X. Zhao, et al., “Violet Phosphorus Quantum Dots,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 10 (2022): 245–250.

[50] L. Liu, J. Shen, K. Wu, and N. Yang, “Electrochemistry of Solvent-Exfoliated Red Phosphorus Nanosheets,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 320 (2020): 128359.

[51] M. Zhang, J. Liu, L. Liu, et al., “A New High-Yield Fabrication Approach for Porous Red Phosphorus Nanosheets Using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone With Multiple Photocatalytic Reduction Applications,” Ceramics International 46 (2020): 23165–23172.

[52] P. E. M. Amaral, D. C. Hall, R. Pai, et al., “Fibrous Phosphorus Quantum Dots for Cell Imaging,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 3 (2020): 752–759.

[53] X. Wang, C. An, S. Zhang, S. Wang, J. Li, and Y. Zhu, “Metal -Free Heterostructured 2D/1D Polymeric Carbon Nitride/Fibrous Phosphorus for Boosted Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production From Pure Water,” Separation and Purification Technology 340 (2024): 126733.

[54] R. Das, K. Das, B. Ray, C. P. Vinod, and S. C. Peter, “Green Transformation of CO₂ to Ethanol Using Water And Sunlight by The Combined Effect of Naturally Abundant Red Phosphorus and Bi₂MoO₆,” Energy & Environmental Science 15 (2022): 1967–1976.

[55] H.-S. Tsai, C.-C. Lai, C.-H. Hsiao, et al., “Plasma-Assisted Synthesis of High-Mobility Atomically Layered Violet Phosphorus,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 7 (2015): 13723–13727.

[56] Z. Shen, S. Sun, W. Wang, J. Liu, Z. Liu, and J. C. Yu, “A Black–Red Phosphorus Heterostructure for Efficient Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalysis,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3 (2015): 3285–3288.

[57] F. Chen, S. Sun, K. Mu, Y. Li, Z. Shen, and S. Zhan, “In-Situ-Formed Red Phosphorus Nanosheet on Bulk Red Phosphorus for Boosting Charge Separation in Photocatalysis: The Role of Multiple Interfacial Effects,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 312 (2022): 121373.

[58] M. Gu, L. Zhang, S. Mao, et al., “Violet Phosphorus: An Effective Metal-Free Elemental Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution,” Chemical Communications 58 (2022): 12811–12814.

[59] X. Zhao, M. Gu, R. Zhai, et al., “Violet Antimony Phosphorus with Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Small 19 (2023): 2302859.

[60] X. Wang, C. Xu, Z. Wang, et al., “Violet Phosphorus Quantum Dots as An Emerging Visible Light-Responsive Photocatalyst for An Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11 (2023): 10883–10890.

[61] Z. Hu and W. Guo, “Fibrous Phase Red Phosphorene as a New Photocatalyst for Carbon Dioxide Reduction and Hydrogen Evolution,” Small 17 (2021): 2008004.

[62] J. Bi, S. Zhao, J. Wu, et al., “Dual Cocatalysts Decorated Three Dimensionally Ordered Mesoporous g-C₃N₄ with Homogeneous Wall Thickness for Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance,” Applied Organometallic Chemistry 34 (2020): e5552.

[63] H. Yin, A. Ablez, Z. Wang, et al., “Novel Open-Framework Chalcogenide Photocatalysts: Cobalt Cocatalyst Valence State Modulating Critical Charge Transfer Pathways Towards High-efficiency Hydrogen Evolution,” Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry 44 (2025): 100560.

[64] T. Ni, H. Zhang, L. Zhou, et al., “Atomic Cobalt Catalysts on 3D Interconnected g-C₃N₄ Support for Activation of Peroxymonosulfate: The Importance of Co-N Coordination Effect,” Chinese Chemical Letters 36 (2025): 110659.

[65] Y. Mu, R. Ma, S. Xue, H. Shang, W. Lu, and L. Jiao, “Recent Advances and Perspective on Transition Metal Heterogeneous Catalysts for Efficient Electrochemical Water Splitting,” Carbon Neutralization 3 (2024): 4–31.

[66] P. Dong, J. Pan, L. Zhang, X.-L. Yang, M.-H. Xie, and J. Zhang, “Regulation of Electron Delocalization Between Flower-Like (Co, Ni)-MOF Array and WO₃/W Photoanode for Effective Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 350 (2024): 123925.

[67] N. Liu, K. Liu, Y. Zhang, et al., “Reactive Metal–Support Interactions Promote the Low-Temperature Water Gas Shift Activity of Ni-Based Catalysts,” ACS Catalysis 15 (2025): 11177–11185.

[68] Y. Zhou, K. Zhao, M. Al Amin, et al., “Elucidating the Role of Phosphorus Doping in Co and Ni-Loaded Carbon Nitride Photocatalysts for Nefazodone Degradation,” Environmental Functional Materials 1 (2022): 114–120.

[69] X. Liu and H. Zhuang, “Recent Progresses in Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: Design and Construction of Ni-Based Cocatalysts,” International Journal of Energy Research 45 (2020): 1480–1495.

[70] Y. Han, Y. Chen, R. Fan, Z. Li, and Z. Zou, “Promotion Effect of Metal Phosphides Towards Electrocatalytic and Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” EcoMat 3 (2021): e12097.

[71] C. Yang, Y. Zhu, Y. Liu, H. Wang, and D. Yang, “Ternary Red Phosphorus/CoP₂/SiO₂ Microsphere Boosts Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution From Pure Water Splitting,” Journal of Materials Science & Technology 125 (2022): 59–66.

[72] H. Dang, X. Dong, Y. Dong, H. Fan, and Y. Qiu, “Enhancing the Photocatalytic H₂evolution Activity of Red Phosphorous by Using Noble-Metal-Free Ni(OH)₂ under Photoexcitation Up to 700 nm,” RSC Advances 4 (2014): 44823–44826.

[73] Q. Mao, D. Li, and Y. Dong, “Ni_xP and Mn₃O₄ dual Co-Catalysts Separately Deposited on A g-C₃N₄/Red Phosphorus Hybrid Photocatalyst for An Efficient Hydrogen Evolution,” New Journal of Chemistry 46 (2022): 6267–6273.

[74] A. Sikandaier, Y. Zhu, and D. Yang, “In-Situ Decorated Cobalt Phosphide Cocatalyst on Hittorf's Phosphorus Triggering Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production,” Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry 43 (2024): 100242.

[75] A. Zheng, X. Li, P. Chen, et al., “Ni Single Atoms/Nanoparticles-Decided Spatial Adjustment of Photocatalytic Redox Sites Boosting CO₂ Reduction in H₂O Vapour,” Chemsuschem 18 (2025): e202500330.

[76] M. Wang, S. Xu, Z. Zhou, et al., “Atomically Dispersed Janus Nickel Sites on Red Phosphorus for Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202204711.

[77] H. Li, L. Zhang, R. Li, et al., “Atomically Dispersed Ni-P₄ Active Sites on Few-Layer Violet Phosphorene for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Nano Today 51 (2023): 101885.

[78] X. Zhai, Z. Wei, Z. Lu, et al., “Cobalt Single Atom-Enhanced Photocatalysis: Hetero-Phase Elemental Phosphorus for Visible Light Hydrogen Production From Pure Water Splitting,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2503667.

[79] Q. Zhang, J. Wang, C. Liu, et al., “Red Phosphorus Decorated In₂O₃ hollow Fiber Heterostructures for Boosting White Led Driven Photocatalytic Bacterial Inactivation,” Nano Research 18 (2025): 94907320.

[80] J. Tang, C. Guo, T. Wang, et al., “A Review of g-C₃N₄-based Photocatalytic Materials for Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Carbon Neutralization 3 (2024): 557–583.

[81] A. Dai, Z. Huang, L. Tian, Z. Zhang, X. Guan, and L. Guo, “Polymeric Carbon Nitride For Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting: Modification Strategies And Recent Advances,” Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry 44 (2025): 100630.

[82] Q. Zhu and J. Zhang, “Is g-C₃N₄ More Suitable for Photocatalytic Reduction or Oxidation in Environmental Applications,” Environmental Functional Materials 1 (2022): 121–125.

[83] J. Qian, C. Zhao, M. Chen, et al., “Optimizing Carbon Doping and Black Phosphorus Heterojunctions in Three Dimensional Carbon Nitride for Exceptional Photocatalytic Activity,” Separation and Purification Technology 361 (2025): 131657.

[84] W. Wang, G. Li, T. An, D. K. L. Chan, J. C. Yu, and P. K. Wong, “Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution and Bacterial Inactivation Utilizing Sonochemical-Synthesized g-C₃N₄/red Phosphorus Hybrid Nanosheets as a Wide-Spectral-Responsive Photocatalyst: The Role of Type I Band Alignment,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 238 (2018): 126–135.

[85] M. Wang, S. Xu, Z. Ge, Y. Li, Z. Zhou, and Y. Chen, “All-Solid-State C₃N₄/Ni_xP/Red Phosphorus Z-Scheme Heterostructure for Wide-Spectrum Photocatalytic Pure Water Splitting,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 62 (2023): 961–970.

[86] X. Xiao, Y. Jia, W. Hong, et al., “Sulfur-Defective ZnIn₂S₄ Nanosheets Decorated by TiO₂ Nanosheets With Exposed {001} Facets to Accelerate Charge Transfer for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry 43 (2024): 100474.

[87] H. Ge, S. Dong, and Z. Bian, “Enhancing the Photocatalytic Removal of Toluene by Modified Porous TiO₂ With Internal Hydrophobic Interface,” Environmental Functional Materials 2 (2023): 25–35.

[88] X. Yang, R. Zhao, H. Zhan, H. Zhao, Y. Duan, and Z. Shen, “Modified Titanium Dioxide-Based Photocatalysts for Water Treatment: Mini Review,” Environmental Functional Materials 3 (2024): 1–12.

[89] J. Wang, D. Zhang, J. Deng, and S. Chen, “Fabrication of Phosphorus Nanostructures/TiO₂ Composite Photocatalyst With Enhancing Photodegradation and Hydrogen Production From Water under Visible Light,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 516 (2018): 215–223.

[90] F. Liu, R. Shi, Z. Wang, Y. Weng, C. M. Che, and Y. Chen, “Direct Z-Scheme Hetero-Phase Junction of Black/Red Phosphorus for Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (2019): 11791–11795.

[91] X. Wang, M. Ma, X. Zhao, et al., “Phase Engineering of 2D Violet/Black Phosphorus Heterostructure for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Small Structures 4 (2023): 2300123.

[92] C. Wu, R. Zhu, W. Y. Teoh, et al., “Hetero-Phase Dendritic Elemental Phosphorus For Visible Light Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 312 (2022): 121428.

[93] M. Xu, L. Jiang, J. Wang, S. Feng, P.-L. Tremblay, and T. Zhang, “Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution With High-Crystallinity and Noble Metal-Free Red Phosphorus-Cds Nanorods,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 45 (2020): 17354–17366.

[94] Y. An, W. Liu, Y. Zhang, et al., “Hierarchical S-Scheme Heterojunction of Red Phosphorus Nanoparticles Embedded Flower-Like CeO₂ Triggering Effcient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production,” Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica 40 (2024): 2405019.

[95] J. Chen, S. Huang, Y. Long, et al., “Fabrication of ZnO/Red Phosphorus Heterostructure for Effective Photocatalytic H₂ Evolution From Water Splitting,” Nanomaterials 8 (2018): 835.

[96] Y. Sun, X. Pei, B. Wang, et al., “Point Defect Engineering of Elemental Phosphorus for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Chemical Engineering Journal 463 (2023): 142488.

[97] S. Zhang, S. Ma, X. Hao, et al., “Controllable Preparation of Crystalline Red Phosphorus and Its Photocatalytic Properties,” Nanoscale 13 (2021): 18955–18960.

[98] L. Jing, R. Zhu, D. L. Phillips, and J. C. Yu, “Effective Prevention of Charge Trapping in Graphitic Carbon Nitride With Nanosized Red Phosphorus Modification for Superior Photo(Electro)Catalysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 27 (2017): 1703484.

[99] J. Feng, D. Zhang, H. Zhou, M. Pi, X. Wang, and S. Chen, “Coupling P-N Nanostructures With P-Doped g-C₃N₄ As Efficient Visible Light Photocatalysts for H₂ Evolution and RhB Degradation,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 6 (2018): 6342–6349.

[100] G. Huang, W. Ye, C. Lv, et al., “Hierarchical Red Phosphorus Incorporated TiO₂ Hollow Sphere Heterojunctions Toward Superior Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production,” Journal of Materials Science & Technology 108 (2022): 18–25.

[101] L. Jing, R. Zhu, Y. H. Ng, et al., “Visible-Light Photocatalysis and Charge Carrier Dynamics of Elemental Crystalline Red Phosphorus,” The Journal of Chemical Physics 153 (2020): 024707.

[102] X. Zhao, X. Bai, R. Zhai, et al., “Trap Engineering in Violet Antimony Phosphorus: Modulating Photoelectron Transfer Pathways for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 370 (2025): 125166.

[103] X. Wang, Y. Wang, M. Ma, X. Zhao, J. Zhang, and F. Zhang, “P-N Bonds-Mediated Atomic-Level Charge-Transfer Channel Fabricated between Violet Phosphorus and Carbon Nitride Favors Charge Separation and Water Splitting,” Small 20 (2024): 2311841.

[104] L. Kong, Y. Ji, Z. Dang, et al., “g-C₃N₄ Loading Black Phosphorus Quantum Dot for Efficient and Stable Photocatalytic H₂ Generation Under Visible Light,” Advanced Functional Materials 28 (2018): 1800668.

[105] H. Zhao, S. Sun, Y. Wu, P. Jiang, Y. Dong, and Z. J. Xu, “Ternary Graphitic Carbon Nitride/Red Phosphorus/Molybdenum Disulfide Heterostructure: An Efficient and Low Cost Photocatalyst for Visible-Light-Driven H₂ Evolution From Water,” Carbon 119 (2017): 56–61.

[106] E. Liu, L. Qi, J. Chen, J. Fan, and X. Hu, “In Situ Fabrication of a 2D Ni₂P/red Phosphorus Heterojunction for Efficient Photocatalytic H₂ Evolution,” Materials Research Bulletin 115 (2019): 27–36.

[107] R. Shi, H. F. Ye, F. Liang, et al., “Interstitial P-Doped CdS with Long-Lived Photogenerated Electrons for Photocatalytic Water Splitting without Sacrificial Agents,” Advanced Materials 30 (2017): 1705941.

[108] C. Li, M. Fu, Y. Wang, E. Liu, J. Fan, and X. Hu, “In Situ Synthesis of Co₂P-Decorated Red Phosphorus for Enhanced Photocatalytic H₂ Evolution,” Catalysis Science & Technology 10 (2020): 2221–2230.

[109] M. Wang, Z. Qin, Z. Diao, et al., “Red Phosphorus/Carbon Nitride Van Der Waals Heterostructure for Photocatalytic Pure Water Splitting under Wide-Spectrum Light Irradiation,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8 (2020): 13459–13466.

[110] F. Liu, F. Xue, Y. Si, et al., “Functionalized Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S Chalcogenide Nanotwins Enabling Z-Scheme Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 4 (2021): 759–768.

[111] J. Jia, X. Bai, Q. Zhang, X. Hu, E. Liu, and J. Fan, “Porous Honeycomb-Like NiSe₂/red Phosphorus Heteroarchitectures for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production,” Nanoscale 12 (2020): 5636–5651.

[112] L. Liu, J. Liu, W. Yang, J. Wan, F. Fu, and D. Wang, “Constructing a Z-Scheme ZnIn₂S₄-S/CNTs/RP Nanocomposite With Modulated Energy Band Alignment for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 608 (2022): 482–492.

[113] J. Ran, W. Guo, H. Wang, B. Zhu, J. Yu, and S. Z. Qiao, “Metal-Free 2D/2D Phosphorene/g-C₃N₄ Van Der Waals Heterojunction for Highly Enhanced Visible-Light Photocatalytic H₂ Production,” Advanced Materials 30 (2018): 1800128.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.