Exploring Carbon-Based Materials as Supports for Active Metals in Ammonia Decomposition: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

The global pursuit of sustainable energy solutions has intensified research into efficient hydrogen production, with ammonia (NH₃) decomposition emerging as a promising method due to its high hydrogen content. Catalyst design is critical to this process, in which carbon-based supports play a key role in enhancing performance. This review explores the use of various carbon-based supports, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, Sibunit, mesoporous carbon, graphene, and xerogels, as carriers for metal catalysts in NH₃ decomposition. These supports offer thermal stability, high surface area, and favorable electronic properties, promoting better dispersion of active metal sites. This review critically examines both noble and non-noble metal catalysts and discusses how the carbon support structure and modifications influence performance. Mechanistic insights into NH₃ decomposition, key elementary steps, and catalyst behavior are detailed. Challenges and future directions in carbon-supported catalyst development are highlighted to guide advancements in hydrogen production and sustainable energy systems.

Keywords

ammonia decomposition / carbon materials / catalyst design / hydrogen production / metal catalysts

References

[1] A. Hassan, M. Waris, W. W. Kazmi, et al., “Metal Impregnated Activated Carbon as Cost-Effective and Scalable Catalysts for Amine-Based CO₂ Capture,” Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11, no. 1 (2023): 109231.

[2] H. Liu, J. Qu, A. H. Bhatti, et al., “A Generic Machine Learning Model for CO₂ Equilibrium Solubility Into Blended Amine Solutions,” Separation and Purification Technology 334, (2024): 126100. December 2023.

[3] Y. Niu, T. Li, A. H. Bhatti, et al., “Development of One-Step Synthesized SO₄²⁻/ZrO₂-Fly Ash (Sz@Fa) Solid Acid Catalysts for Energy-Efficient Sorbent Regeneration in CO₂ Capture Processes,” Applied Energy 368, no. November 2023 (2024): 1–9.

[4] S. Lu, S. Zhang, Q. Liu, et al., “Recent Advances in Novel Materials for Photocatalytic Carbon Dioxide Reduction,” Carbon Neutralization 3, no. 1 (2024): 142–168.

[5] J. Tang, C. Guo, T. Wang, et al., “A Review of g-C₃N₄ -Based Photocatalytic Materials for Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Carbon Neutralization 3, no. 4 (2024): 557–583.

[6] J. Wang, Z. Zhu, Y. Lin, et al., “Nano-Engineering in Zinc-Based Catalysts for CO₂ Electroreduction: Advances and Challenges,” Carbon Neutralization 3, no. 3 (2024): 423–440.

[7] M. Waris, H. Ra, S. Yoon, M. J. Kim, and K. Lee, “Efficient and Stable Ni/SBA-15 Catalyst for Dry Reforming of Methane: Effect of Citric Acid Concentration,” Catalysts 13, no. 6 (2023): 916.

[8] H. Liu, R. Liu, A. H. Bhatti, et al., “CO₂ Absorption Behavior in Dual-Amine Blends of Primary and Tertiary Amine: Machine Learning, NMR Analysis, and Performance Evaluation,” Chemical Engineering Science 316, no. December 2024 (2025): 121947.

[9] N. S. Lewis and D. G. Nocera, “Powering the Planet: Chemical Challenges in Solar Energy Utilization,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, no. 43 (2006): 15729–15735.

[10] M. A. Green, E. D. Dunlop, J. Hohl-Ebinger, M. Yoshita, N. Kopidakis, and A. W. Y. Ho-Baillie, “Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 55),” Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 28, no. 1 (2020): 3–15.

[11] P. Veers, K. Dykes, E. Lantz, et al., “Grand Challenges in the Science of Wind Energy,” Science 366, no. 6464 (2019): eaau2027, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2027.

[12] A. I. Osman, N. Mehta, A. M. Elgarahy, A. Al-Hinai, A. H. Al-Muhtaseb, and D. W. Rooney, Conversion of Biomass to Biofuels and Life Cycle Assessment: A Review (Springer International Publishing, 2021), 19.

[13] I. Hussain, O. J. Kewate, A. Hanan, et al., “V-MXenes for Energy Storage/Conversion Applications,” Chemsuschem 17, no. 15 (2024): e202400283.

[14] J. B. Goodenough and Y. Kim, “Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries,” Chemistry of Materials 22, no. 3 (2010): 587–603.

[15] B. C. H. Steele and A. Heinzel, “Materials for Fuel-Cell Technologies,” Nature 414 (2001): 345–352.

[16] J. E. Pacheco, S. K. Showalter, and W. J. Kolb, “Development of a Molten-Salt Thermocline Thermal Storage System for Parabolic Trough Plants,” International Solar Energy Conference (2001), 453–460.

[17] M. Balat, “Potential Importance of Hydrogen as a Future Solution to Environmental and Transportation Problems,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 33, no. 15 (2008): 4013–4029.

[18] M. Awad, A. Said, M. H. Saad, et al., “A Review of Water Electrolysis for Green Hydrogen Generation Considering PV/Wind/Hybrid/Hydropower/Geothermal/Tidal and Wave/Biogas Energy Systems, Economic Analysis, and Its Application,” Alexandria Engineering Journal 87, no. November 2023 (2024): 213–239.

[19] M. D. B. Watanabe, F. Cherubini, O. Cavalett, et al. A Pathway to Decarbonise the Shipping Sector by 2050. Vol 364. (2021).

[20] A. Alsulaiman, “Navigating Turbulence: Hydrogen's Role in the Decarbonization of the Aviation Sector,” OIES Paper, January (2024).

[21] IRENA, Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective (2019), https://irena.org/publications/2019/Sep/Hydrogen-A-renewable-energy-perspective.

[22] A. Züsttel, “Hydrogen Storage Methods,” Naturwissenschaften 91, no. 4 (2004): 157–172.

[23] S. Satyapal, J. Petrovic, C. Read, G. Thomas, and G. Ordaz, “The U.S. Department of Energy's National Hydrogen Storage Project: Progress Towards Meeting Hydrogen-Powered Vehicle Requirements,” Catalysis Today 120, no. 3–4 SPEC. ISS (2007): 246–256.

[24] T. H. Ulucan, S. A. Akhade, A. Ambalakatte, et al., “Hydrogen Storage in Liquid Hydrogen Carriers: Recent Activities and New Trends,” Progress in Energy 5, no. 1 (2023): 012004.

[25] A. Iulianelli, P. Ribeirinha, A. Mendes, and A. Basile, “Methanol Steam Reforming for Hydrogen Generation via Conventional and Membrane Reactors: A Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 29 (2014): 355–368.

[26] A. H. Bhatti, M. Waris, I. Hussain, et al., “Renaissance of Fly Ash as Eco-Friendly Catalysts for Rapid CO₂ Release From Amines,” Carbon Capture Science & Technology 11, no. January (2024): 100198.

[27] M. Li, A. H. Bhatti, T. Li, et al., “Tailoring Sepiolite for Efficient CO₂ Desorption: A Sustainable Approach Utilizing Acid Activation for Amine Regeneration Optimization,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 63, no. 22 (2024): 9933–9942.

[28] M. Bui, C. S. Adjiman, A. Bardow, et al., “Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): The Way Forward,” Energy & Environmental Science 11, no. 5 (2018): 1062–1176.

[29] J. W. Makepeace, T. J. Wood, H. M. A. Hunter, M. O. Jones, and W. I. F. David, “Ammonia Decomposition Catalysis Using Non-Stoichiometric Lithium Imide,” Chemical Science 6, no. 7 (2015): 3805–3815.

[30] R. Lan, J. T. S. Irvine, and S. Tao, “Ammonia and Related Chemicals as Potential Indirect Hydrogen Storage Materials,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 37, no. 2 (2012): 1482–1494.

[31] C. Zamfirescu and I. Dincer, “Using Ammonia as a Sustainable Fuel,” Journal of Power Sources 185, no. 1 (2008): 459–465.

[32] E. Spatolisano, L. A. Pellegrini, A. R. de Angelis, S. Cattaneo, and E. Roccaro, “Ammonia as a Carbon-Free Energy Carrier: NH₃ Cracking to H₂,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 62, no. 28 (2023): 10813–10827.

[33] S. Giddey, S. P. S. Badwal, C. Munnings, and M. Dolan, “Ammonia as a Renewable Energy Transportation Media,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 5, no. 11 (2017): 10231–10239.

[34] V. Pattabathula and J. Richardson, “Introduction to Ammonia Production,” Chemical Engineering Progress 112, no. 9 (2016): 69–75.

[35] W. Lee, S. An, and Y. Choi, “Ammonia Harvesting via Membrane Gas Extraction at Moderately Alkaline pH: A Step Toward Net-Profitable Nitrogen Recovery From Domestic Wastewater,” Chemical Engineering Journal 405, no. May 2020 (2021): 126662.

[36] IRENA and AEA, Innovation Outlook: Renewable Ammonia (International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, Ammonia Energy Association, 2022).

[37] H. Shen, C. Choi, J. Masa, et al., “Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis: Mechanistic Understanding and Catalyst Design,” Chem 7, no. 7 (2021): 1708–1754.

[38] J. A. Faria, “Renaissance of Ammonia Synthesis for Sustainable Production of Energy and Fertilizers,” Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 29 (2021): 100466.

[39] Ž. Ponikvar, B. Likozar, and S. Gyergyek, “Electrification of Catalytic Ammonia Production and Decomposition Reactions: From Resistance, Induction, and Dielectric Reactor Heating to Electrolysis,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 5, no. 5 (2022): 5457–5472.

[40] J. Arroyo-Caire, M. A. Diaz-Perez, M. A. Lara-Angulo, and J. C. Serrano-Ruiz, “A Conceptual Approach for the Design of New Catalysts for Ammonia Synthesis: A Metal—Support Interactions Review,” Nanomaterials 13, no. 22 (2023): 2914.

[41] S. Yu, T. Xiang, N. S. Alharbi, B. A. Al-aidaroos, and C. Chen, “Recent Development of Catalytic Strategies for Sustainable Ammonia Production,” Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering 62 (2023): 65–113.

[42] Y. Yoon, Y. Choi, Y. Bae, J. Hong, and K. Kim, “Ni-Based Alloy Catalysts for Cost-Effective Hydrogen Production From Ammonia Decomposition,” Applied Surface Science Advances 27, no. February (2025): 100759.

[43] S. Ghavam, M. Vahdati, I. A. G. Wilson, and P. Styring, “Sustainable Ammonia Production Processes,” Frontiers in Energy Research 9, no. March (2021): 1–19.

[44] N. Bora, A. Kumar Singh, P. Pal, et al., “Green Ammonia Production: Process Technologies and Challenges,” Fuel 369, no. January 2024 (2024): 131808.

[45] G. Pagani, Y. Hajimolana, and C. Acar, “Green Hydrogen for Ammonia Production—A Case for the Netherlands,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 52 (2024): 418–432.

[46] H. Jin, S. S. Kim, S. Venkateshalu, J. Lee, K. Lee, and K. Jin, “Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation for Green Ammonia: Recent Progress and Challenges,” Advanced Science 10, no. 23 (2023): 1–20.

[47] C. Cao, B. Wen, Y. Fang, et al., “A Comprehensive Comparison of Green Ammonia and Green Methanol From a Full Chain: Production, Transportation, Storage and Utilization,” Carbon Neutral Systems 1 (2025): 1–43.

[48] S. O. Jeje, T. Marazani, J. O. Obiko, and M. B. Shongwe, “Advancing the Hydrogen Production Economy: A Comprehensive Review of Technologies, Sustainability, and Future Prospects,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 78, no. April (2024): 642–661.

[49] IRENA and AEA, Innovation Outlook: Renewable Ammonia (2022).

[50] Y. Zhao, B. P. Setzler, J. Wang, et al., “An Efficient Direct Ammonia Fuel Cell for Affordable Carbon-Neutral Transportation,” Joule 3, no. 10 (2019): 2472–2484.

[51] J. Cui and M. Aziz, “Techno-Economic Analysis of Hydrogen Transportation Infrastructure Using Ammonia and Methanol,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 42 (2023): 15737–15747.

[52] X. Hu, B. Guan, J. Chen, et al., “Research Status and Advances of Catalysts for Hydrogen Production From Ammonia Decomposition: Refined Regulation Methods,” Fuel 381, no. PB (2025): 133134.

[53] B. S. Solanki, H. Lim, S. J. Yoon, et al., “Recent Advancement of Non-Noble Metal Catalysts for Hydrogen Production by NH₃ Decomposition,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy 207 (2025): 114974.

[54] E. P. Perman, G. A. S. Atkinson, and W. Ramsay, “The Decomposition of Ammonia by Heat,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 74, no. 497 (1905): 110–117.

[55] J. W. Makepeace, T. He, C. Weidenthaler, et al., “Reversible Ammonia-Based and Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers for High-Density Hydrogen Storage: Recent Progress,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 44, no. 15 (2019): 7746–7767.

[56] J. K. Dixon, “The Kinetics of the Decomposition of Ammonia on Copper,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 53, no. 5 (1931): 1763–1773.

[57] S. Mukherjee, S. V. Devaguptapu, A. Sviripa, C. R. F. Lund, and G. Wu, “Low-Temperature Ammonia Decomposition Catalysts for Hydrogen Generation,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 226 (2018): 162–181.

[58] T. E. Bell and L. Torrente-Murciano, “H₂ Production via Ammonia Decomposition Using Non-Noble Metal Catalysts: A Review,” Topics in Catalysis 59, no. 15–16 (2016): 1438–1457.

[59] A. Klerke, C. H. Christensen, J. K. Nørskov, and T. Vegge, “Ammonia for Hydrogen Storage: Challenges and Opportunities,” Journal of Materials Chemistry 18, no. 20 (2008): 2304–2310.

[60] F. Schüth, R. Palkovits, R. Schlögl, and D. S. Su, “Ammonia as a Possible Element in an Energy Infrastructure: Catalysts for Ammonia Decomposition,” Energy & Environmental Science 5, no. 4 (2012): 6278–6289.

[61] K. E. Lamb, M. D. Dolan, and D. F. Kennedy, “Sciencedirect Ammonia for Hydrogen Storage; A Review of Catalytic Ammonia Decomposition and Hydrogen Separation and Purification,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 44, no. 7 (2018): 3580–3593.

[62] J. Cha, T. Lee, Y. J. Lee, et al., “Highly Monodisperse Sub-Nanometer and Nanometer Ru Particles Confined in Alkali-Exchanged Zeolite Y for Ammonia Decomposition,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 283, no. September 2020 (2021): 119627.

[63] S. Sayas, N. Morlanés, S. P. Katikaneni, A. Harale, B. Solami, and J. Gascon, “High Pressure Ammonia Decomposition on Ru-K/CaO Catalysts,” Catalysis Science & Technology 10, no. 15 (2020): 5027–5035.

[64] K. McCullough, P. H. Chiang, J. D. Jimenez, and J. A. Lauterbach, “Material Discovery and High Throughput Exploration of Ru Based Catalysts for Low Temperature Ammonia Decomposition,” Materials 13, no. 8 (2020): 1869.

[65] X. C. Hu, X. P. Fu, W. W. Wang, et al., “Ceria-Supported Ruthenium Clusters Transforming From Isolated Single Atoms for Hydrogen Production via Decomposition of Ammonia,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 268 (2020): 118424.

[66] W. Zheng, Nanomaterials for Ammonia Decomposition,” Thesis (2012).

[67] S. F. Yin, B. Q. Xu, X. P. Zhou, and C. T. Au, “A Mini-Review on Ammonia Decomposition Catalysts for On-Site Generation of Hydrogen for Fuel Cell Applications,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 277, no. 1–2 (2004): 1–9.

[68] A. Hassan, M. Waris, W. W. Kazmi, K. hyuk Kang, and U. H. Bhatti, “Acid-Treated Activated Carbon as Simple and Inexpensive Catalyst to Accelerate CO₂ Desorption From Aqueous Amine Solution,” Carbon Capture Science & Technology 8, no. July (2023): 100131.

[69] S. A. Mohtashami, N. Asasian Kolur, T. Kaghazchi, R. Asadi-Kesheh, and M. Soleimani, “Optimization of Sugarcane Bagasse Activation to Achieve Adsorbent With High Affinity Towards Phenol,” Turkish Journal of Chemistry 42, no. 6 (2018): 1720–1735.

[70] S. Iqbal, H. Khatoon, A. Hussain Pandit, and S. Ahmad, “Recent Development of Carbon Based Materials for Energy Storage Devices,” Materials Science for Energy Technologies 2, no. 3 (2019): 417–428.

[71] A. Marandi, N. Koukabi, and M. A. Zolfigol, “Fabrication of Activated Carbon Sulfuric Acid as an Excellent and Novel Solid Acid Catalyst, Evaluating its Catalytic Activity in Synthesizing 1,8-Dioxo-octahydroxanthenes and 14-Aryl-14H-Dibenzo[a,i]Xanthenes,” Research on Chemical Intermediates 47, no. 8 (2021): 3145–3163.

[72] E. Auer, A. Freund, J. Pietsch, and T. Tacke, “Carbons as Supports for Industrial Precious Metal Catalysts,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 173, no. 2 (1998): 259–271.

[73] R. Can Seyfeli and D. Varisli, “Ammonia Decomposition Reaction to Produce CO_x-Free Hydrogen Using Carbon Supported Cobalt Catalysts in Microwave Heated Reactor System,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 45, no. 60 (2020): 34867–34878.

[74] S. B. I. Anthonysamy, S. B. Afandi, M. Khavarian, and A. R. B. Mohamed, “A Review of Carbon-Based and Non-Carbon-Based Catalyst Supports for the Selective Catalytic Reduction of Nitric Oxide,” Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 9, no. 1 (2018): 740–761.

[75] F. Stüber, J. Font, A. Fortuny, C. Bengoa, A. Eftaxias, and A. Fabregat, “Carbon Materials and Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater,” Topics in Catalysis 33 (2005): 3–50.

[76] J. Donald, C. (Charles) Xu, H. Hashimoto, E. Byambajav, and Y. Ohtsuka, “Novel Carbon-Based Ni/Fe Catalysts Derived From Peat for Hot Gas Ammonia Decomposition in an Inert Helium Atmosphere,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 375, no. 1 (2010): 124–133.

[77] M. Miao, X. Gong, S. Lei, L. Wang, M. Sha, and Q. Meng, “The Graphene-Supported Non-Noble Metal Catalysts Activate Ammonia Decomposition: A DFT Study,” Chemical Physics 548, no. May (2021): 111249.

[78] G. Li, M. Kanezashi, and T. Tsuru, “Catalytic Ammonia Decomposition Over High-Performance Ru/Graphene Nanocomposites for Efficient CO_x-Free Hydrogen Production,” Catalysts 7, no. 1 (2017): 23.

[79] L. Li, Z. H. Zhu, Z. F. Yan, G. Q. Lu, and L. Rintoul, “Catalytic Ammonia Decomposition Over Ru/Carbon Catalysts: The Importance of the Structure of Carbon Support,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 320 (2007): 166–172.

[80] L. Torrente-Murciano, A. K. Hill, and T. E. Bell, “Ammonia Decomposition Over Cobalt/Carbon Catalysts—Effect of Carbon Support and Electron Donating Promoter on Activity,” Catalysis Today 286 (2017): 131–140.

[81] L. Li, Z. H. Zhu, G. Q. Lu, Z. F. Yan, and S. Z. Qiao, “Catalytic Ammonia Decomposition Over CMK-3 Supported Ru Catalysts: Effects of Surface Treatments of Supports,” Carbon 45, no. 1 (2007): 11–20.

[82] F. R. García-García, J. Álvarez-Rodríguez, I. Rodríguez-Ramos, and A. Guerrero-Ruiz, “The Use of Carbon Nanotubes With and Without Nitrogen Doping as Support for Ruthenium Catalysts in the Ammonia Decomposition Reaction,” Carbon 48, no. 1 (2010): 267–276.

[83] S. F. Yin, Q. H. Zhang, B. Q. Xu, W. X. Zhu, C. F. Ng, and C. T. Au, “Investigation on the Catalysis of CO_x-Free Hydrogen Generation From Ammonia,” Journal of Catalysis 224, no. 2 (2004): 384–396.

[84] S. F. Yin, B. Q. Xu, C. F. Ng, and C. T. Au, “Nano Ru/CNTs: A Highly Active and Stable Catalyst for the Generation of CO-Free Hydrogen in Ammonia Decomposition,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 48, no. 4 (2004): 237–241.

[85] J. Chen, Z. H. Zhu, S. Wang, Q. Ma, V. Rudolph, and G. Q. Lu, “Effects of Nitrogen Doping on the Structure of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Activity of Ru/CNTs in Ammonia Decomposition,” Chemical Engineering Journal 156, no. 2 (2010): 404–410.

[86] A. K. Hill and L. Torrente-Murciano, “Low Temperature H₂ Production From Ammonia Using Ruthenium-Based Catalysts: Synergetic Effect of Promoter and Support,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 172–173 (2015): 129–135.

[87] S. J. Wang, S. F. Yin, L. Li, B. Q. Xu, C. F. Ng, and C. T. Au, “Investigation on Modification of Ru/CNTs Catalyst for the Generation of CO_x-Free Hydrogen From Ammonia,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 52, no. 4 (2004): 287–299.

[88] V. A. Borisov, K. N. Iost, D. A. Petrunin, et al., “Effect of the Modifier on the Catalytic Properties and Thermal Stability of Ru–Cs(Ba)/Sibunit Catalyst for Ammonia Decomposition,” Kinetics and Catalysis 60, no. 3 (2019): 372–379.

[89] S. F. Yin, B. Q. Xu, W. X. Zhu, C. F. Ng, X. P. Zhou, and C. T. Au, “Carbon Nanotubes-Supported Ru Catalyst for the Generation of CO_x-Free Hydrogen From Ammonia,” Catalysis Today 93–95 (2004): 27–38.

[90] H. Zhang, Y. A. Alhamed, Y. Kojima, A. A. Al-Zahrani, H. Miyaoka, and L. A. Petrov, “Structure and Catalytic Properties of Ni/MWCNTs and Ni/AC Catalysts for Hydrogen Production via Ammonia Decomposition,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 39, no. 1 (2014): 277–287.

[91] L. Lv, P. Chu, T. Han, et al., “Carbon and Oxygen Double Defects-Enhanced Ru-Based Catalyst for Ammonia Decomposition,” Angewandte Chemie—International Edition 64 (2025): e202501898.

[92] S. R. Deshmukh, A. B. Mhadeshwar, and D. G. Vlachos, “Microreactor Modeling for Hydrogen Production From Ammonia Decomposition on Ruthenium,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 43, no. 12 (2004): 2986–2999.

[93] J. H. Zhou, Z. J. Sui, J. Zhu, et al., “Characterization of Surface Oxygen Complexes on Carbon Nanofibers by TPD, XPS and FT-IR,” Carbon 45, no. 4 (2007): 785–796.

[94] P. Li, Y. L. Huang, D. Chen, J. Zhu, T. J. Zhao, and X. G. Zhou, “CNFs-Supported Pt Catalyst for Hydrogen Evolution From Decalin,” Catalysis Communications 10, no. 6 (2009): 815–818.

[95] X. Duan, J. Zhou, G. Qian, P. Li, X. Zhou, and D. Chen, “Carbon Nanofiber-Supported Ru Catalysts for Hydrogen Evolution by Ammonia Decomposition,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 31, no. 8 (2010): 979–986.

[96] Y. Marco, L. Roldán, S. Armenise, and E. García-Bordejé, “Support-Induced Oxidation State of Catalytic Ru Nanoparticles on Carbon Nanofibers That Were Doped With Heteroatoms (O, N) for the Decomposition of NH₃,” ChemCatChem 5, no. 12 (2013): 3829–3834.

[97] X. Duan, G. Qian, X. Zhou, Z. Sui, D. Chen, and W. Yuan, “Tuning the Size and Shape of Fe Nanoparticles on Carbon Nanofibers for Catalytic Ammonia Decomposition,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 101, no. 3–4 (2011): 189–196.

[98] S. F. Yin, B. Q. Xu, S. J. Wang, C. F. Ng, and C. T. Au, “Magnesia-Carbon Nanotubes (MgO-CNTs) Nanocomposite: Novel Support of Ru Catalyst for the Generation of COx-Free Hydrogen From Ammonia,” Catalysis Letters 96, no. 3–4 (2004): 113–116.

[99] L. Wang, J. Chen, L. Ge, V. Rudolph, and Z. Zhu, “Difference in the Cooperative Interaction Between Carbon Nanotubes and Ru Particles Loaded on Their Internal/External Surface,” RSC Advances 3, no. 31 (2013): 12641–12647.

[100] C. Chen, Y. Chen, A. M. Ali, et al., “Bimetallic Ru-Fe Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotubes for Ammonia Decomposition and Synthesis,” Chemical Engineering & Technology 43, no. 4 (2020): 719–730.

[101] J. Chen, Z. H. Zhu, Q. Ma, L. Li, V. Rudolph, and G. Q. Lu, “Effects of Pre-Treatment in Air Microwave Plasma on the Structure of CNTs and the Activity of Ru/CNTs Catalysts for Ammonia Decomposition,” Catalysis Today 148, no. 1–2 (2009): 97–102.

[102] J. Zhang, M. Comotti, F. Schüth, R. Schlögl, and D. S. Su, “Commercial Fe- or Co-Containing Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts for NH₃ Decomposition,” Chemical Communications, no. 19 (2007): 1916–1918.

[103] J. Zhang, J. O. Müller, W. Zheng, D. Wang, D. Su, and R. Schlögl, “Individual Fe-Co Alloy Nanoparticles on Carbon Nanotubes: Structural and Catalytic Properties,” Nano Letters 8, no. 9 (2008): 2738–2743.

[104] Z. Hu, J. Mahin, S. Datta, T. E. Bell, and L. Torrente-Murciano, “Ru-Based Catalysts for H₂ Production From Ammonia: Effect of 1D Support,” Topics in Catalysis 62, no. 17–20 (2019): 1169–1177.

[105] S. Ren, F. Huang, J. Zheng, S. Chen, and H. Zhang, “Ruthenium Supported on Nitrogen-Doped Ordered Mesoporous Carbon as Highly Active Catalyst for NH₃ Decomposition to H₂,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 42, no. 8 (2017): 5105–5113.

[106] H. Zhang, Y. A. Alhamed, W. Chu, Z. Ye, A. Alzahrani, and L. Petrov, “Controlling Co-Support Interaction in Co/MWCNTs Catalysts and Catalytic Performance for Hydrogen Production via NH₃ Decomposition,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 464–465 (2013): 156–164.

[107] H. Zhang, Y. A. Alhamed, A. Al-Zahrani, et al., “Tuning Catalytic Performances of Cobalt Catalysts for Clean Hydrogen Generation via Variation of the Type of Carbon Support and Catalyst Post-Treatment Temperature,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 39, no. 31 (2014): 17573–17582.

[108] T. E. Bell, G. Zhan, K. Wu, H. C. Zeng, and L. Torrente-Murciano, “Modification of Ammonia Decomposition Activity of Ruthenium Nanoparticles by N-Doping of CNT Supports,” Topics in Catalysis 60, no. 15–16 (2017): 1251–1259.

[109] M. Güler and D. Varişli, “Multiwall Carbon Nanotube-Supported Molybdenum Catalysts for Ammonia Decomposition Reaction Under Microwave Effect,” Turkish Journal of Chemistry 44, no. 2 (2020): 309–324.

[110] S. Armenise, L. Roldán, Y. Marco, A. Monzón, and E. García-Bordejé, “Elucidation of Catalyst Support Effect for NH₃ Decomposition Using Ru Nanoparticles on Nitrogen-Functionalized Carbon Nanofiber Monoliths,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 116, no. 50 (2012): 26385–26395.

[111] S. Prabu, R. K. Dharman, K. Y. Chiang, and T. H. Oh, “Highly Efficient Ni Nanoparticles Embedded on MgO and N-Doped Carbon Nanofibers for Efficient Ammonia Decomposition,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 125 (2023): 402–409.

[112] F. L. Winter, P. Diehl, P. Telaar, et al., “Influence of the Catalyst Precursor for Cobalt on Activated Carbon Applied in Ammonia Decomposition,” Catalysis Today 429, no. September 2023 (2024): 114502.

[113] R. Wang, X. Chen, H. Hao, et al., “Enhanced Activity of Ru-Based Catalysts for Ammonia Decomposition Through Nitrogen Doping of Hierarchical Porous Carbon Carriers,” BioResources 19, no. 3 (2024): 4313–4334.

[114] F. R. García-García, A. Guerrero-Ruiz, I. Rodríguez-Ramos, A. Goguet, S. O. Shekhtman, and C. Hardacre, “TAP Studies of Ammonia Decomposition over Ru and Ir Catalysts,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 13, no. 28 (2011): 12892–12899.

[115] J. Yang, D. He, W. Chen, et al., “Bimetallic Ru-Co Clusters Derived From a Confined Alloying Process Within Zeolite-Imidazolate Frameworks for Efficient NH₃ Decomposition and Synthesis,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 9, no. 45 (2017): 39450–39455.

[116] F. Hayashi, Y. Toda, Y. Kanie, et al., “Ammonia Decomposition by Ruthenium Nanoparticles Loaded on Inorganic Electride C12a7:E-,” Chemical Science 4, no. 8 (2013): 3124–3130.

[117] L. Li, F. Chen, Y. Dai, J. Wu, J. L. Shao, and H. Y. Li, “Fe-Assisted Ru Clusters Supported on Porous and Graphitic Carbon for Ammonia Decomposition to Co:X Free Hydrogen,” RSC Advances 6, no. 104 (2016): 102336–102342.

[118] N. Hien, H. Kim, M. Jeon, et al., “Ru-N-C Hybrid Nanocomposite for Ammonia Dehydrogenation: Influence of N-Doping on Catalytic Activity,” Materials 8, no. 6 (2015): 3442–3455.

[119] F. R. García-García, A. Guerrero-Ruiz, and I. Rodríguez-Ramos, “Role of B5-Type Sites in Ru Catalysts Used for the NH₃ Decomposition Reaction,” Topics in Catalysis 52, no. 6–7 (2009): 758–764.

[120] D. Ye, K. C. Leung, W. Niu, et al., “Active Nitrogen Sites on Nitrogen Doped Carbon for Highly Efficient Associative Ammonia Decomposition,” iScience 27, no. 8 (2024): 110571.

[121] C. Xu, N. Tsubouchi, H. Hashimoto, and Y. Ohtsuka, “Catalytic Decomposition of Ammonia Gas With Metal Cations Present Naturally in Low Rank Coals,” Fuel 84, no. 14–15 (2005): 1957–1967.

[122] Y. Ohtsuka, C. Xu, D. Kong, and N. Tsubouchi, “Decomposition of Ammonia With Iron and Calcium Catalysts Supported on Coal Chars,” Fuel 83, no. 6 (2004): 685–692.

[123] W. Raróg-Pilecka, “Ammonia Decomposition Over the Carbon-Based Ruthenium Catalyst Promoted With Barium or Cesium,” Journal of Catalysis 218, no. 2 (2003): 465–469.

[124] A. Jedynak, Z. Kowalczyk, D. Szmigiel, and J. Zieliński, “Ammonia Synthesis Over the Carbon-Based Iron Catalyst Promoted With Potassium,” Polish Journal of Chemistry 75, no. 11 (2001): 1801–1805.

[125] R. Z. Sørensen, A. Klerke, U. Quaade, S. Jensen, O. Hansen, and C. H. Christensen, “Promoted Ru on High-Surface Area Graphite for Efficient Miniaturized Production of Hydrogen From Ammonia,” Catalysis Letters 112, no. 1–2 (2006): 77–81.

[126] L. Li, Q. Meng, W. Ji, J. Shao, Q. Xu, and J. Yan, “Embedded Iron Nanoparticles by Graphitized Carbon as Highly Active yet Stable Catalyst for Ammonia Decomposition,” Molecular Catalysis 442 (2017): 147–153.

[127] T. Meng, Q. Q. Xu, Y. T. Li, J. L. Chang, T. Z. Ren, and Z. Y. Yuan, “Nickle Nanoparticles Highly Dispersed on Reduced Graphene Oxide for Ammonia Decomposition to Hydrogen,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 32 (2015): 373–379.

[128] F. Chang, H. Wu, R. Pluijm, J. Guo, P. Ngene, and P. E. De Jongh, “Effect of Pore Confinement of NaNH₂ and KNH₂ on Hydrogen Generation From Ammonia,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 123, no. 35 (2019): 21487–21496.

[129] R. Hu, Y. Yuan, W. Wang, et al., “Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Feni@Nc Catalyst for Highly Efficient Hydrogen Generation via Ammonia Decomposition,” Materials Science and Engineering B 314, no. September 2024 (2025): 118051.

[130] W. Raróg, Z. Kowalczyk, J. Sentek, D. Składanowski, D. Szmigiel, and J. Zieliñski, “Decomposition of Ammonia Over Potassium Promoted Ruthenium Catalyst Supported on Carbon,” Applied Catalysis, A: General 208, no. 1–2 (2001): 213–216.

[131] W. Raróg-Pilecka, D. Szmigiel, A. Komornicki, J. Zieliński, and Z. Kowalczyk, “Catalytic Properties of Small Ruthenium Particles Deposited on Carbon,” Carbon 41, no. 3 (2003): 589–591.

[132] K. N. Iost, N. S. Smirnova, V. A. Borisov, et al., “Study of the Interaction Between Components At Different Stages of Preparing Ru–Rb/Sibunit Catalysts for the Decomposition of Ammonia,” Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry A 94, no. 11 (2020): 2201–2208.

[133] V. A. Borisov, K. N. Iost, V. L. Temerev, et al., “The Influence of the Specific Surface Area of the Carbon Support on the Activity of Ruthenium Catalysts for the Ammonia-Decomposition Reaction,” Kinetics and Catalysis 59, no. 2 (2018): 136–142.

[134] K. N. Iost, V. A. Borisov, V. L. Temerev, et al., “Effect of the Carbon Support Graphitization on the Activity and Thermal Stability of Ru-Ba-Cs/C Ammonia Decomposition Catalysts,” Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis 127, no. 1 (2019): 85–102.

[135] C. Mebrahtu, F. Krebs, S. Abate, S. Perathoner, G. Centi, and R. Palkovits, CO₂ Methanation: Principles and Challenges, 1st ed. (Elsevier, 2019), 178.

[136] K. N. Iost, V. A. Borisov, N. S. Smirnova, et al., “Resistance for Methanation and Activity in Ammonia Decomposition Catalysts Ru-Rb/Sibunit,” AIP Conference Proceedings 2143, no. August (2019): 020033.

[137] A. H. Lu, J. J. Nitz, M. Comotti, et al., “Spatially and Size Selective Synthesis of Fe-Based Nanoparticles on Ordered Mesoporous Supports as Highly Active and Stable Catalysts for Ammonia Decomposition,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 132, no. 40 (2010): 14152–14162.

[138] K. Liu, M. A. Nawaz, and G. Liao, “Progress and Future Challenges in Designing High-Performance Ni/CeO₂ Catalysts for CO₂ Methanation: A Critical Review,” Carbon Neutralization 4, no. 1 (2025): 1–35.

[139] D. Varisli, C. Korkusuz, and T. Dogu, “Microwave-Assisted Ammonia Decomposition Reaction Over Iron Incorporated Mesoporous Carbon Catalysts,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 201 (2017): 370–380.

[140] D. A. Petrunin, V. A. Borisov, K. N. Iost, et al., “Comparison of the Activity of Ru-K/Sibunit Catalysts in Ammonia Synthesis and Decomposition,” AIP Conference Proceedings 2141, no. August (2019): 020024.

[141] D. A. Shlyapin, V. A. Borisov, V. L. Temerev, K. N. Iost, Z. A. Fedorova, and P. V. Snytnikov, “Ammonia Synthesis and Decomposition in the Presence of Supported Ruthenium Catalysts,” Kinetics and Catalysis 64, no. 6 (2023): 815–825.

[142] L. Wang, S. Ma, Z. Jiao, and D. Yuan, “Capability of Defective Graphene-Supported Co₄ Nanoparticle Toward Ammonia Dehydrogenation,” Applied Surface Science 465, no. April 2018 (2019): 1–9.

[143] C. Cui, Z. Luo, and J. Yao, “Enhanced Catalysis of Pt₃ Clusters Supported on Graphene for N-H Bond Dissociation,” CCS Chemistry 1, no. 2 (2019): 215–225.

[144] T. Kocer, F. E. Saraç-Öztuna, S. F. Kurtoğlu-Öztulum, U. Unal, and A. Uzun, “Effect of Nickel Precursor on the Catalytic Performance of Graphene Aerogel-Supported Nickel Nanoparticles for the Production of Cox-Free Hydrogen by Ammonia Decomposition,” Energy Technology 10, no. 3 (2022): 1–10.

[145] M. Pinzón, O. Avilés-García, A. R. de la Osa, A. de Lucas-Consuegra, P. Sánchez, and A. Romero, “New Catalysts Based on Reduced Graphene Oxide for Hydrogen Production From Ammonia Decomposition,” Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy 25, no. February (2022): 100615.

[146] T. Kocer, F. E. S. Oztuna, S. F. Kurtoğlu, U. Unal, and A. Uzun, “Graphene Aerogel-Supported Ruthenium Nanoparticles for CO_x-Free Hydrogen Production From Ammonia,” Applied Catalysis A: General 610, no. November 2020 (2021): 117969.

[147] G. Li, H. Nagasawa, M. Kanezashi, T. Yoshioka, and T. Tsuru, “Graphene Nanosheets Supporting Ru Nanoparticles With Controlled Nanoarchitectures Form a High-Performance Catalyst for CO_x-Free Hydrogen Production From Ammonia,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability 2, no. 24 (2014): 9185–9192.

[148] R. W. Pekala, “Organic Aerogels From the Polycondensation of Resorcinol With Formaldehyde,” Journal of Materials Science 24, no. 9 (1989): 3221–3227.

[149] M. Melchionna, S. Marchesan, M. Prato, and P. Fornasiero, “Carbon Nanotubes and Catalysis: The Many Facets of a Successful Marriage,” Catalysis Science & Technology 5, no. 8 (2015): 3859–3875.

[150] S. Mazzone, A. Campbell, G. Zhang, and F. R. García-García, “Ammonia Cracking Hollow Fibre Converter for On-Board Hydrogen Production,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 46, no. 76 (2021): 37697–37704.

[151] F. J. Maldonado-Hódar, M. A. Ferro-Garcı́a, J. Rivera-Utrilla, and C. Moreno-Castilla, “Synthesis and Textural Characteristics of Organic Aerogels, Transition-Metal-Containing Organic Aerogels and Their Carbonized Derivatives,” Carbon 37, no. 8 (1999): 1199–1205.

[152] M. S. Contreras, C. A. Páez, L. Zubizarreta, et al., “A Comparison of Physical Activation of Carbon Xerogels With Carbon Dioxide With Chemical Activation Using Hydroxides,” Carbon 48, no. 11 (2010): 3157–3168.

[153] T. Horikawa, J. Hayashi, and K. Muroyama, “Controllability of Pore Characteristics of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Carbon Aerogel,” Carbon 42, no. 8–9 (2004): 1625–1633.

[154] C. Lin and J. A. Ritter, “Carbonization and Activation of Sol-Gel Derived Carbon Xerogels,” Carbon 38, no. 6 (2000): 849–861.

[155] H. F. Gorgulho, F. Gonçalves, M. F. R. Pereira, and J. L. Figueiredo, “Synthesis and Characterization of Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Xerogels,” Carbon 47, no. 8 (2009): 2032–2039.

[156] M. B. Barbosa, J. P. Nascimento, P. B. Martelli, C. A. Furtado, N. D. S. Mohallem, and H. F. Gorgulho, “Electrochemical Properties of Carbon Xerogel Containing Nitrogen in a Carbon Matrix,” Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 162 (2012): 24–30.

[157] R. P. Rocha, J. Restivo, J. P. S. Sousa, J. J. M. Órfão, M. F. R. Pereira, and J. L. Figueiredo, “Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Xerogels as Catalysts for Advanced Oxidation Processes,” Catalysis Today 241, no. PA (2015): 73–79.

[158] C. A. Orge, J. J. M. Órfão, and M. F. R. Pereira, “Carbon Xerogels and Ceria-Carbon Xerogel Materials as Catalysts in the Ozonation of Organic Pollutants,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 126 (2012): 22–28.

[159] S. Lambert, N. Job, L. Dsouza, et al., “Synthesis of Very Highly Dispersed Platinum Catalysts Supported on Carbon Xerogels by the Strong Electrostatic Adsorption Method,” Journal of Catalysis 261, no. 1 (2009): 23–33.

[160] N. Job, M. F. R. Pereira, S. Lambert, et al., “Highly Dispersed Platinum Catalysts Prepared by Impregnation of Texture-Tailored Carbon Xerogels,” Journal of Catalysis 240, no. 2 (2006): 160–171.

[161] C. Alegre, D. Sebastián, and M. J. Lázaro, “Carbon Xerogels Electrochemical Oxidation and Correlation With Their Physico-Chemical Properties,” Carbon 144 (2019): 382–394.

[162] J. P. S. Sousa, M. F. R. Pereira, and J. L. Figueiredo, “Carbon Xerogel Catalyst for NO Oxidation,” Catalysts 2, no. 4 (2012): 447–465.

[163] A. Santos Silva, F. F. Roman, R. S. Ribeiro, J. Garcia, and H. T. Gomes, “Beyond Batch Experiments: Unveiling the Potential of Bimetallic Carbon Xerogels for Catalytic Wet Peroxide Oxidation of Hospital Wastewater in Continuous Mode,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 31, no. 57 (2024): 65208–65219.

[164] H. T. Gomes, P. V. Samant, P. Serp, P. Kalck, J. L. Figueiredo, and J. L. Faria, “Carbon Nanotubes and Xerogels as Supports of Well-Dispersed Pt Catalysts for Environmental Applications,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 54, no. 3 (2004): 175–182.

[165] S. Mazzone, T. Goklany, G. Zhang, J. Tan, E. I. Papaioannou, and F. R. García-García, “Ruthenium-Based Catalysts Supported on Carbon Xerogels for Hydrogen Production via Ammonia Decomposition,” Applied Catalysis A: General 632, no. October 2021 (2022): 118484.

[166] S. Mazzone, C. Leishman, G. Zhang, and F. R. García-García, “A Compact Non-PGM Catalytic Hollow Fibre Converter for On-Board Hydrogen Production,” Sustainable Energy & Fuels 6, no. 6 (2022): 1554–1567.

[167] A. Hellman, E. J. Baerends, M. Biczysko, et al., “Predicting Catalysis: Understanding Ammonia Synthesis From First-Principles Calculations,” Journal of Physical Chemistry B 110, no. 36 (2006): 17719–17735.

[168] P. H. Emmett and S. Brunauer, “The Adsorption of Nitrogen by Iron Synthetic Ammonia Catalysts,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 56, no. 1 (1934): 35–41.

[169] P. H. Emmett and S. Brunauer, “The Adsorption of Nitrogen by Iron Synthetic Ammonia Catalysts,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 55, no. 4 (1933): 1738–1739.

[170] A. Nielsen, “Rate Equation and Mechanism of Ammonia Synthesis at Industrial Conditions,” Journal of Catalysis 3, no. 1 (1964): 68–79.

[171] G. Ertl, M. Weiss, and S. B. Lee, “The Role of Potassium in the Catalytic Synthesis of Ammonia,” Chemical Physics Letters 60, no. 3 (1979): 391–394.

[172] Z. Paál, G. Ertl, and S. B. Lee, “Interactions of Potassium, Oxygen and Nitrogen With Polycrystalline Iron Surfaces,” Applications of Surface Science 8, no. 3 (1981): 231–249.

[173] M. Muhler, F. Rosowski, and G. Ertl, “The Dissociative Adsorption of N₂ on a Multiply Promoted Iron Catalyst Used for Ammonia Synthesis: A Temperature-Programmed Desorption Study,” Catalysis Letters 24, no. 3–4 (1994): 317–331.

[174] G. Ertl, S. B. Lee, and M. Weiss, “Kinetics of Nitrogen Adsorption on Fe(111),” Surface Science 114, no. 2–3 (1982): 515–526.

[175] T. A. Le, Q. C. Do, Y. Kim, T. W. Kim, and H. J. Chae, “A Review on the Recent Developments of Ruthenium and Nickel Catalysts for Co_x-Free H₂ Generation by Ammonia Decomposition,” Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering 38, no. 6 (2021): 1087–1103.

[176] S. Brunauer, K. S. Love, and R. G. Keenan, “Adsorption of Nitrogen and the Mechanism of Ammonia Decomposition Over Iron Catalysts,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 64, no. 4 (1942): 751–758.

[177] S. R. Logan and C. Kemball, “The Catalytic Decomposition of Ammonia on Evaporated Metal Films,” Transactions of the Faraday Society 56 (1960): 144–153.

[178] J. C. Ganley, F. S. Thomas, E. G. Seebauer, and R. I. Masel, “A Priori Catalytic Activity Correlations: The Difficult Case of Hydrogen Production From Ammonia,” Catalysis Letters 96, no. 3 (2004): 117–122.

[179] X. Duan, J. Ji, G. Qian, et al., “Ammonia Decomposition on Fe(1 1 0), Co(1 1 1) and Ni(1 1 1) Surfaces: A Density Functional Theory Study,” Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical 357 (2012): 81–86.

[180] S. Zhou, S. Lin, and H. Guo, “First-Principles Insights into Ammonia Decomposition Catalyzed by Ru Clusters Anchored on Carbon Nanotubes: Size Dependence and Interfacial Effects,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 122, no. 16 (2018): 9091–9100.

[181] A. Takahashi and T. Fujitani, “Kinetic Analysis of Decomposition of Ammonia over Nickel and Ruthenium Catalysts,” Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 49, no. 1 (2016): 22–28.

[182] W. Chen, X. Pi, Z. Qu, et al., “Pyridinic N-B Pair-Doped Carbon Microspheres With Refined Hierarchical Architectures for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries,” Applied Energy 377, no. Part A (2025): 124511.

[183] J. Li, W. Chen, X. Pi, et al., “N-Doped Pitch Assisted Local Interface Micro-Environment Tailoring and Microcrystalline Regulation in Carbon Nanotube for Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Fuel 378, no. September (2024): 133014.

[184] Q. Wu, Y. Jia, Q. Liu, et al., “Ultra-Dense Carbon Defects as Highly Active Sites for Oxygen Reduction Catalysis,” Chemistry 8, no. 10 (2022): 2715–2733.

[185] Z. Zhao, H. Chen, W. Zhang, et al., “Defect Engineering in Carbon Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Catalytic Conversion,” Materials Advances 4, no. 3 (2023): 835–867.

[186] G. D'Acunto, F. Ripanti, P. Postorino, et al., “Channelling and Induced Defects at Ion-Bombarded Aligned Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes,” Carbon 139 (2018): 768–775.

[187] M. A. Astle, A. Weilhard, G. A. Rance, et al., “Defect Etching in Carbon Nanotube Walls for Porous Carbon Nanoreactors: Implications for CO₂ Sorption and the Hydrosilylation of Phenylacetylene,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 2075–2086.

[188] M. B. Ndiaye, A. Geha, and Y. Aguado, “Graphene, a Material With Exceptional Electronic Properties,” Space Science Journal 1, no. 1 (2024): 01–11.

[189] S. Ji, C. Jun, Y. Chen, and D. Wang, “Precise Synthesis at the Atomic Scale,” Precision Chemistry 1, no. 4 (2023): 199–225.

[190] H. Li, H. Zhang, X. Yan, B. Xu, and J. Guo, “Carbon-Supported Metal Single Atom Catalysts,” New Carbon Materials 33, no. 1 (2018): 1–11.

[191] Y. Zhong, K. Deng, J. Zheng, et al., “One-Step Growth of the Interconnected Carbon Nanotubes/Graphene Hybrids From Cuttlebone-Derived Bi-Functional Catalyst for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Science & Technology 149 (2023): 205–213.

[192] S. Joseph, G. Singh, J. M. Lee, et al., “Hierarchical Carbon Structures From Soft Drink for Multi-Functional Energy Applications of Li-Ion Battery, Na-Ion Battery and CO₂ Capture,” Carbon 210, no. May (2023): 118085.

[193] S. Zhang, Z. He, X. Li, J. Zhang, Q. Zang, and S. Wang, “Building Heterogeneous Nanostructures for Photocatalytic Ammonia Decomposition,” Nanoscale Advances 2, no. 9 (2020): 3610–3623.

[194] A. Larasati, G. D. Fowler, and N. J. D. Graham, “Extending Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Bed Life: A Column Study of In-Situ Chemical Regeneration of Pesticide Loaded Activated Carbon for Water Treatment,” Chemosphere 286, no. P3 (2022): 131888.

[195] C. A. Chiu, K. Hristovski, S. Huling, and P. Westerhoff, “In-Situ Regeneration of Saturated Granular Activated Carbon by an Iron Oxide Nanocatalyst,” Water Research 47, no. 4 (2013): 1596–1603.

[196] S. Kim, Y. W. Kim, I. Chung, C. Lim, K. Yong, and Y. Yun, “Recent Advances and Strategies for Co-Based Catalysts in Ammonia Decomposition for Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research 6, (2025;2400406): 1–24.

[197] C. Weidenthaler, W. Schmidt, S. Leiting, et al., “In-Situ Investigations of Co@Al₂O₃ Ammonia Decomposition Catalysts: The Interaction Between Support and Catalyst,” ChemCatChem 14, no. 20 (2022): e202200688.

[198] Ruthenium Catalyst Market, Verif Mark Res. Published online (2023), 1–202, https://www.verifiedmarketresearch.com/.

[199] M. T. Findlay, A. S. Hogg, J. J. Douglas, and I. Larrosa, “Improving the Sustainability of the Ruthenium-Catalysed N-Directed C-H Arylation of Arenes With Aryl Halides,” Green Chemistry 25, no. 6 (2023): 2394–2400.

[200] Z. Su, J. Guan, Y. Liu, et al., “Research Progress of Ruthenium-Based Catalysts for Hydrogen Production From Ammonia Decomposition,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 51 (2024): 1019–1043.

[201] J. Lu, X. Bo, H. Wang, and L. Guo, “Nitrogen-Doped Ordered Mesoporous Carbons Synthesized From Honey as Metal-Free Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Electrochimica Acta 108 (2013): 10–16.

[202] S. U. Azam and B. Orlińska, “Carbon Nanotubes as Advanced Catalysts and Catalytic Supports for the Liquid-Phase Aerobic Oxidation of Hydrocarbons: A Review,” Applied Catalysis A: General 668, no. August (2023): 119465.

[203] C. Qiao, J. Che, J. Wang, et al., “Cost Effective Production of High Quality Multilayer Graphene in Molten Sn Bubble Column by Using CH₄ as Carbon Source,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 930 (2023): 167495.

[204] C. Scherdel and G. Reichenauer, “Carbon Xerogels Synthesized via Phenol-Formaldehyde Gels,” Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 126, no. 1–2 (2009): 133–142.

[205] R. K. Thines, N. M. Mubarak, S. Nizamuddin, J. N. Sahu, E. C. Abdullah, and P. Ganesan, “Application Potential of Carbon Nanomaterials in Water and Wastewater Treatment: A Review,” Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers 72, no. January (2017): 116–133.

[206] H. T. T. Le, T. D. Dang, N. T. H. Chu, and C. J. Park, “Synthesis of Nitrogen-Doped Ordered Mesoporous Carbon With Enhanced Lithium Storage Performance From Natural Kaolin Clay,” Electrochimica Acta 332 (2020): 135399.

[207] Y. A. Alhamed, H. Zhang, Y. Kojima, A. A. Al-Zahrani, D. Hafedh, and L. A. Petrov, “Effect of Surface Functional Groups Attached to Carbon Nanotubes Used as Support of Nickel Catalysts on Their Structure and Catalytic Performance for Ammonia Decomposition,” Comptes Rendus de L'Academie Bulgare des Sciences 67, no. 4 (2014): 519–526.

[208] J. C. Tseng, D. Gu, C. Pistidda, et al., “Tracking the Active Catalyst for Iron-Based Ammonia Decomposition by In Situ Synchrotron Diffraction Studies,” ChemCatChem 10, no. 19 (2018): 4465–4472.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.