Interfacial Storage for Next-Generation Batteries: Mechanisms, Advances, and Challenges

Abstract

Modern battery systems confront inherent kinetic and durability limitations due to the simultaneous accommodation of electrons and ions within the bulk phase of electrode materials. A paradigm-shifting strategy, inspired by the “job-sharing” electrochemistry concept, addresses these challenges by decoupling electron and ion storage into distinct space charge regions at engineered heterointerfaces. Despite the considerable promise of interfacial storage mechanisms in advancing next-generation batteries, the field lacks a coherent theoretical framework and universal design principles to fully harness their potential across diverse material systems and device architectures. This review provides a fundamental understanding of interfacial storage mechanisms while elucidating their impacts on electrochemical performance. We critically analyze recent breakthroughs in nanocomposite/heterostructure electrodes and solid-state electrolytes, highlighting how rational interface engineering can enhance charge transfer kinetics, transcend intrinsic bulk storage limitations, improve structural stability, and mitigate space charge effects at electrode/electrolyte interfaces. Moreover, we discuss cutting-edge characterization methodologies essential for probing interfacial evolution and charge storage behavior. Finally, we identify pivotal challenges in interfacial stability control and scalable manufacturing, while proposing promising research directions, such as atomic-scale interface engineering and sustainable fabrication strategies, to advance carbon-neutral energy storage systems through innovative electrochemical approaches.

Keywords

batteries / interfacial storage / job-sharing / solid-state electrolytes / space charge regions

References

[1] Y. Wang, R. Wang, K. Tanaka, et al., “Accelerating the Energy Transition Towards Photovoltaic and Wind in China,” Nature 619 (2023): 761–767.

[2] Z. Liu, Z. Deng, G. He, et al., “Challenges and Opportunities for Carbon Neutrality in China,” Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 3 (2022): 141–155.

[3] J. Sun, N. Zhai, J. Miao, and H. Sun, “Can Green Finance Effectively Promote the Carbon Emission Reduction in “Local-Neighborhood” Areas?—Empirical Evidence From China,” Agriculture (London) 12 (2022): 1550.

[4] A. C. Dillon, “Carbon Nanotubes for Photoconversion and Electrical Energy Storage,” Chemical Reviews 110 (2010): 6856–6872.

[5] G. Wang, M. Yu, and X. Feng, “Carbon Materials for Ion-Intercalation Involved Rechargeable Battery Technologies,” Chemical Society Reviews 50 (2021): 2388–2443.

[6] D. Zhang, W. Wang, S. Li, X. Shen, and H. Xu, “Design Strategies and Energy Storage Mechanisms of MOF-Based Aqueous Zinc Ion Battery Cathode Materials,” Energy Storage Materials 69 (2024): 103436.

[7] Q. Wu, Y. Zhong, R. Chen, et al., “Cu-Ag-C@ Ni₃S₄ With Core Shell Structure and Rose Derived Carbon Electrode Materials: An Environmentally Friendly Supercapacitor With High Energy and Power Density,” Industrial Crops and Products 222 (2024): 119676.

[8] X. Wang, Y. Pan, X. Wang, et al., “High Performance Hybrid Supercapacitors Assembled With Multi-Cavity Nickel Cobalt Sulfide Hollow Microspheres as Cathode and Porous Typha-Derived Carbon as Anode,” Industrial Crops and Products 189 (2022): 115863.

[9] D. Zhang and H. Xu, “Nickel Modified TiO₂/C Nanodisks With Defective and Near-Amorphous Structure for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Battery Energy 3 (2024): 20230032.

[10] M. D. Slater, D. Kim, E. Lee, and C. S. Johnson, “Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 23 (2013): 947–958.

[11] J. Wei, P. Zhang, J. Sun, et al., “Advanced Electrolytes for High-Performance Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Society Reviews 53 (2024): 10335–10369.

[12] W. Wang, D. Liu, Y. Jiang, et al., “Mechanism Enhancement of V₃O₇/V₆O₁₃ Heterostructures to Achieve High-Performance Aqueous Zn-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 463 (2023): 142309.

[13] X. Xu, F. Xiong, J. Meng, et al., “Vanadium-Based Nanomaterials: A Promising Family for Emerging Metal-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 30 (2020): 1904398.

[14] Y. Zhang, Q. Li, W. Feng, et al., “Valence Engineering via Polyoxometalate-Induced on Vanadium Centers for Efficient Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): 202501728.

[15] Y. Liu, S. P. Jiang, and Z. Shao, “Intercalation Pseudocapacitance in Electrochemical Energy Storage: Recent Advances in Fundamental Understanding and Materials Development,” Materials Today Advances 7 (2020): 100072.

[16] C. C. Chen and J. Maier, “Decoupling Electron and Ion Storage and the Path From Interfacial Storage to Artificial Electrodes,” Nature Energy 3 (2018): 102–108.

[17] C. C. Chen, L. Fu, and J. Maier, “Synergistic, Ultrafast Mass Storage and Removal in Artificial Mixed Conductors,” Nature 536 (2016): 159–164.

[18] J. Maier, “Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Lithium Storage,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 52 (2013): 4998–5026.

[19] J. Zhang, J. Zhang, H. Wang, et al., “Solid-Solid Interfacial Charge Storage of Prussian Blue/rGO Mixed-Conductor Cathode for High-Power Na Ion Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 7 (2022): 4472–4482.

[20] R. Usiskin and J. Maier, “Interfacial Effects in Lithium and Sodium Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 11 (2021): 2001455.

[21] J. Maier, “Mass Storage in Space Charge Regions of Nano-Sized Systems (Nano-Ionics. Part V),” Faraday Discussions 134 (2007): 51–66.

[22] H. Wang, J. Zhu, Y. Su, Z. Gong, and Y. Yang, “Interfacial Compatibility Issues in Rechargeable Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries: A Review,” Science China Chemistry 64 (2021): 879–898.

[23] Q. Zhang, Y. Kong, K. Gao, et al., “Research Progress on Space Charge Layer Effect in Lithium-Ion Solid-State Battery,” Science China: Technological Sciences 65 (2022): 2246–2258.

[24] M. Bärtsch and M. Niederberger, “The Role of Interfaces in Heterostructures,” ChemPlusChem 82 (2017): 42–59.

[25] Z. Chen, T. Ma, W. Wei, W. Y. Wong, C. Zhao, and B. J. Ni, “Work Function-Guided Electrocatalyst Design,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2401568.

[26] C. C. Chen and J. Maier, “Space Charge Storage in Composites: Thermodynamics,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 19 (2017): 6379–6396.

[27] C. C. Chen, E. Navickas, J. Fleig, and J. Maier, “Kinetics of Space Charge Storage in Composites,” Advanced Functional Materials 28 (2018): 1705999.

[28] Z. Gu, J. Ma, F. Zhu, et al., “Atomic-Scale Study Clarifying the Role of Space-Charge Layers in A Li-Ion-Conducting Solid Electrolyte,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 1632.

[29] M. A. Frechero, M. Rocci, G. Sánchez-Santolino, et al., “Paving the way to Nanoionics: Atomic Origin of Barriers for Ionic Transport Through Interfaces,” Scientific Reports 5 (2015): 17229.

[30] W. Li, Q. Song, M. Li, et al., “Chemical Heterointerface Engineering on Hybrid Electrode Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Small Methods 5 (2021): 2100444.

[31] J. Li, H. Yang, J. Wu, S. Sun, T. Zhai, and H. Xia, “Harnessing the Defects at Hetero-Interface of Transition Metal Compounds for Advanced Charge Storage: A Review,” Small Structures 3 (2022): 2200022.

[32] H. L. Tuller and S. R. Bishop, “Point Defects in Oxides: Tailoring Materials Through Defect Engineering,” Annual Review of Materials Research 41 (2011): 369–398.

[33] S. J. Kim, J. Y. Koo, T. Mun, M. Choi, and W. Lee, “Tailoring Defect Chemistry at Interfaces for Promoted Oxygen Reduction Reaction Kinetics,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8 (2020): 23313–23322.

[34] T. Liu, L. Yu, J. Liu, et al., “Ultrastable Cathodes Enabled by Compositional and Structural Dual-Gradient Design,” Nature Energy 9 (2024): 1252–1263.

[35] D. Liu, W. Wang, S. Li, X. Shen, H. Xie, and H. Xu, “Interface-Dominated Zn²⁺ Storage in Hydrogen-Bonding Interfaces,” Advanced Functional Materials 18 (2024): 2402584.

[36] Y. Li, Y. Lu, P. Adelhelm, M. M. Titirici, and Y. S. Hu, “Intercalation Chemistry of Graphite: Alkali Metal Ions and Beyond,” Chemical Society Reviews 48 (2019): 4655–4687.

[37] V. A. Nikitina, S. Y. Vassiliev, and K. J. Stevenson, “Metal-Ion Coupled Electron Transfer Kinetics in Intercalation-Based Transition Metal Oxides,” Advanced Energy Materials 10 (2020): 1903933.

[38] Y. Zheng, T. Zhou, X. Zhao, et al., “Atomic Interface Engineering and Electric-Field Effect in Ultrathin Bi₂MoO₆ Nanosheets for Superior Lithium Ion Storage,” Advanced Materials 29 (2017): 1700396.

[39] L. Fang, Z. Lan, W. Guan, et al., “Hetero-Interface Constructs Ion Reservoir to Enhance Conversion Reaction Kinetics for Sodium/Lithium Storage,” Energy Storage Materials 18 (2019): 107–113.

[40] S. Yin, X. Zhang, X. Huang, F. Zhou, Y. Wang, and G. Wen, “SnO/SnO₂ Heterojunction Nanoparticles Anchored on Graphene Nanosheets for Lithium Storage,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 7 (2024): 14419–14430.

[41] X. Lu, Y. Shi, D. Tang, et al., “Accelerated Ionic and Charge Transfer Through Atomic Interfacial Electric Fields for Superior Sodium Storage,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 4775–4785.

[42] P. Liang, T. Xu, K. Zhu, et al., “Heterogeneous Interface-Boosted Zinc Storage of H₂V₃O₈ Nanowire/Ti₃C₂T_x Mxene Composite Toward High-Rate and Long Cycle Lifespan Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 50 (2022): 63–74.

[43] F. Li, H. Sheng, Y. Qi, et al., “MoS₂/ZnS Heterostructure Cathode With Intralayer Regulation for Eco-Friendly, Degradable Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 502 (2024): 157850.

[44] Y. Xiao, Q. Gu, H. Li, M. Li, and Y. Wang, “Design of a Cationic Accelerator Enabling Ultrafast Ion Diffusion Kinetics in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 100 (2025): 377–384.

[45] S. Kim, H. Jung, W. G. Lim, et al., “A Versatile Strategy for Achieving Fast-Charging Batteries via Interfacial Engineering: Pseudocapacitive Potassium Storage Without Nanostructuring,” Small 18 (2022): 2202798.

[46] X. Zhang, X. He, S. Yin, et al., “Rational Design of Space-Confined Mn-Based Heterostructures With Synergistic Interfacial Charge Transport and Structural Integrity for Lithium Storage,” Inorganic Chemistry 61 (2022): 8366–8378.

[47] C. Li, X. Yao, L. Luo, et al., “2D-2D Nanosheets for Efficient Zinc-Ion Batteries: Synthesis of Interface-Enriched MoS₂ on VN Hybrid Nanosheets,” Journal of Energy Storage 98 (2024): 113193.

[48] Y. Chen, X. Chen, K. Zhang, Y. Liu, G. Han, and G. Xu, “Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Cathode Enabled by In-Situ Interface Polymerization Engineering Boosts Zn²⁺ Desolvation in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 681 (2025): 35–43.

[49] N. Jiang, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhao, et al., “Spontaneous Redox Reaction-Mediated Interfacial Charge Transfer in Titanium Dioxide/Graphene Oxide Nanoanodes for Rapid and Durable Lithium Storage,” Dalton Transactions 53 (2024): 3348–3355.

[50] M. Yang, Y. Wang, D. Ma, et al., “Unlocking the Interfacial Adsorption-Intercalation Pseudocapacitive Storage Limit to Enabling All-Climate, High Energy/Power Density and Durable Zn-Ion Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): 202304400.

[51] J. Li, Q. Guan, Y. Li, et al., “‘Electron Pump’ of Homo-Interface Enhancing D/P-Band Center Proximity for Zinc Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 483 (2024): 149205.

[52] Z. Lv, Y. Tan, Y. Kang, et al., “Non-Desolvation Zn²⁺ Storage Mechanism Enables MoS₂ Anode With Enhanced Interfacial Charge-Transfer Kinetics for Low Temperature Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Science China Chemistry 66 (2023): 1537–1548.

[53] G. Liang, L. Yang, X. Xiong, et al., “Interfacial Space Charge Enhanced Sodium Storage in a Zero-Strain Cerium Niobite Perovskite Anode,” Advanced Functional Materials 32 (2022): 2206129.

[54] H. Yang, W. Kong, J. Yin, et al., “Coupled Artificial Mixed Conductor Interfaces Boosts Excess Li-Storage Capability and Ultra-Long Cycle Durability in Si Composite,” Surfaces and Interfaces 26 (2021): 101435.

[55] C. Ma, Y. Hou, K. Jiang, et al., “In Situ Cross-Linking Construction of 3D Mesoporous Bimetallic Phosphide-in-Carbon Superstructure With Atomic Interface Toward Enhanced Sodium Ion Storage Performance,” Chemical Engineering Journal 413 (2021): 127449.

[56] Z. Yan, Z. Sun, H. Liu, et al., “Heterogeneous Interface in Hollow Ferroferric Oxide/Iron Phosphide@Carbon Spheres Towards Enhanced Li Storage,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 617 (2022): 442–453.

[57] Z. Liu, J. Huang, B. Liu, et al., “Constructing Enhanced Pseudocapacitive Li⁺ Intercalation via Multiple Ionically Bonded Interfaces Toward Advanced Lithium Storage,” Energy Storage Materials 24 (2020): 138–146.

[58] B. Zhao, Q. Liu, Y. Chen, Q. Liu, Q. Yu, and H. B. Wu, “Interface-Induced Pseudocapacitance in Nonporous Heterogeneous Particles for High Volumetric Sodium Storage,” Advanced Functional Materials 30 (2020): 2002019.

[59] Y. Lin, H. Kang, M. Liang, et al., “Hybrid Nanostructured MnO₂ Nanowire/Graphdiyne With Enhanced Lithium-Ion Performance Promoting by Interfacial Storage,” Applied Surface Science 526 (2020): 146457.

[60] L. Chen, H. Yu, D. Zhu, et al., “Designing Electron/Ion Dual-Phase Conductor Ni@TiO₂ for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Storage: Combining Insertion and Space Charge Mechanism,” Applied Physics Letters 124 (2024): 133901.

[61] Y. Zhang, Y. Xu, Y. Ji, et al., “Constructing Radially Oriented Macroporous Spheres With Central Cavities as Ultrastable Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes,” Energy Storage Materials 17 (2019): 242–252.

[62] L. Zhao, T. Wang, F. Li, et al., “Auxiliary Thermodynamic Analysis Support Capturing the Differences in Nanostructured FeVO₄·nH₂O Electrodes Between Lithium and Sodium Ions Storage Mechanism,” Chemical Engineering Journal 452 (2023): 139310.

[63] S. K. Kang, M. Kim, G. H. Park, J. Ji, S. Hong, and W. B. Kim, “A Charge Confinement Strategy for Boosting Interfacial Space Charge Storage in Manganese Ferrites Enabled by Highly Polarized Fluorinated-Interfacial Layer for High-Energy-Density and Ultrafast Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2408986.

[64] Y. Dai, X. Liao, R. Yu, et al., “Quicker and More Zn²⁺ Storage Predominantly From the Interface,” Advanced Materials 33 (2021): 2100359.

[65] L. Zhao, T. Wang, F. Zuo, et al., “A Fast-Charging/Discharging and Long-Term Stable Artificial Electrode Enabled by Space Charge Storage Mechanism,” Nature Communications 15 (2024): 3778.

[66] D. Zhang, W. Wang, J. Lu, S. Ji, and H. Xu, “A New TiO₂-Based Cathode Material With Interface-Dominated Storage Mechanism for Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Small 21 (2025): 2409304.

[67] C. Zhao, Y. Li, W. Zhang, et al., “Heterointerface Engineering for Enhancing the Electrochemical Performance of Solid Oxide Cells,” Energy & Environmental Science 13 (2020): 53–85.

[68] L. S. de Vasconcelos, R. Xu, Z. Xu, et al., “Chemomechanics of Rechargeable Batteries: Status, Theories, and Perspectives,” Chemical Reviews 122 (2022): 13043–13107.

[69] X. Q. Zhou, Xiong , J. Peng, et al., “Tailored Engineering on the Interface Between Lithium Metal Anode and Solid-State Electrolytes,” Energy & Environmental Materials 8 (2025): 12831.

[70] T. Qin, X. Zhao, Y. Sui, et al., “Heterointerfaces: Unlocking Superior Capacity and Rapid Mass Transfer Dynamics in Energy Storage Electrodes,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2402644.

[71] R. Narayan, C. Laberty-Robert, J. Pelta, J. M. Tarascon, and R. Dominko, “Self-Healing: An Emerging Technology for Next-Generation Smart Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 12 (2022): 2102652.

[72] H. Wang, P. Wang, Y. Feng, et al., “Recent Advances on Self-Healing Materials and Batteries,” ChemElectroChem 6 (2019): 1605–1622.

[73] Y. Li, Z. Yuan, D. Li, et al., “Multi-Interface Combination of Bimetallic Selenide and V₄C₃T_X Mxene for High-Rate and Ultrastable Sodium Storage Devices,” ACS Nano 18 (2024): 4733–4745.

[74] H. Liu, L. Jiang, B. Cao, et al., “Van Der Waals Interaction-Driven Self-Assembly of V₂O₅ Nanoplates and Mxene for High-Performing Zinc-Ion Batteries by Suppressing Vanadium Dissolution,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 14539–14548.

[75] G. Q. Yuan, X. Wei, Y. C. Su, et al., “Enhancing Zn²⁺ Storage Performance by Constructing the Interfaces Between VO₂ and Co–N–C Layers,” Small 20 (2024): 2308851.

[76] F. Yuan, C. Qi, W. Bao, et al., “Asymmetric Orbital Hybridization at the Mxene–VO_2-x Interface Stabilizes Oxygen Vacancies for Enhanced Reversibility in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 18 (2025): 367–377.

[77] B. Xiao, J. Chen, C. Hu, et al., “2D Dynamic Heterogeneous Interface Coupling Endowing Extra Zn²⁺ Storage,” Advanced Functional Materials 33 (2023): 2211679.

[78] P. Shi, J. Ma, M. Liu, et al., “A Dielectric Electrolyte Composite With High Lithium-Ion Conductivity for High-Voltage Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nature Nanotechnology 18 (2023): 602–610.

[79] X. Ma, S. Ge, S. Chen, et al., “Constructing a Dielectric Fluorinated Solid Electrolyte for Practically Operated All-Solid-State Lithium-Metal Batteries,” ACS Nano 19 (2025): 9367–9377.

[80] G. Xiao, K. Yang, Y. Qiu, et al., “Dielectric-Tailored Space Charge Layer and Ion Coordination Structure for High-Voltage Polymer All-Solid-State Lithium Batteries,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2415411.

[81] W. Li, S. Zhang, W. Zheng, et al., “Self-Polarized Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Ferroelectric Cathode Coatings Assisted High Performance All-Solid-State Lithium Battery,” Advanced Functional Materials 33 (2023): 2300791.

[82] Y. Chen, L. Huang, D. Zhou, et al., “Elucidating and Minimizing the Space-Charge Layer Effect Between NCM Cathode and Li₆PS₅Cl for Sulfide-Based Solid-State Lithium Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2304443.

[83] H. Liu, Y. Wang, L. Chen, H. Li, and F. Wu, “High-Capacity, Long-Life Sulfide All-Solid-State Batteries With Single-Crystal Ni-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2315701.

[84] G. Liu, N. Cao, L. Zeng, et al., “Sulfide All-Solid-State Battery With Ultrahigh Nickel Layered Oxide Cathode and Capacity,” Small 21 (2025): 2501224.

[85] C. Shen, W. Feng, Y. Yu, et al., “In Situ Polymerization Inhibiting Electron Localization in Hybrid Electrolyte for Room-Temperature Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2304511.

[86] Z. Wu, L. Du, T. Yang, et al., “Lithium Difluorophosphate Additive Engineering Enabling Stable Cathodic Interface for High-Performance Sulfide-Based All-Solid-State Lithium Battery,” Energy & Environmental Materials 8 (2025): 12871.

[87] Y. Qi, M. W. Swift, E. J. Fuller, and A. A. Talin, “Interface Potentials Inside Solid-State Batteries: Origins and Implications,” MRS Bulletin 48 (2023): 1239–1246.

[88] S. Su, J. Zhao, and T. H. Ly, “Scanning Probe Microscopies for Characterizations of 2D Materials,” Small Methods 8 (2024): 2400211.

[89] H. Masuda, N. Ishida, Y. Ogata, D. Ito, and D. Fujita, “Internal Potential Mapping of Charged Solid-State-Lithium Ion Batteries Using in Situ Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy,” Nanoscale 9 (2017): 893–898.

[90] K. Yamamoto, Y. Iriyama, T. Asaka, et al., “Dynamic Visualization of the Electric Potential in an All-Solid-State Rechargeable Lithium Battery,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 49 (2010): 4414–4417.

[91] Y. Nomura, K. Yamamoto, T. Hirayama, S. Ouchi, E. Igaki, and K. Saitoh, “Direct Observation of a Li-Ionic Space-Charge Layer Formed at an Electrode/Solid-Electrolyte Interface,” Angewandte Chemie 131 (2019): 5346–5350.

[92] L. Wang, R. Xie, B. Chen, et al., “In-Situ Visualization of the Space-Charge-Layer Effect on Interfacial Lithium-Ion Transport in All-Solid-State Batteries,” Nature Communications 11 (2020): 5889.

[93] Q. Li, H. Li, Q. Xia, et al., “Extra Storage Capacity in Transition Metal Oxide Lithium-Ion Batteries Revealed by in Situ Magnetometry,” Nature Materials 20 (2021): 76–83.

[94] X. Li, J. Su, Z. Li, et al., “Revealing Interfacial Space Charge Storage of Li⁺/Na⁺/K⁺ by Operando Magnetometry,” Science Bulletin 67 (2022): 1145–1153.

[95] J. Liu, H. Hua, J. Lin, et al, “Optimizing Interface Concentration and Electric Fields for Enhanced Lithium Deposition Behavior in Lithium Metal Anodes,” Energy & Environmental Science 17 (2024): 5962–5993.

[96] R. Zettl, K. Hogrefe, B. Gadermaier, et al., “Conductor-Insulator Interfaces in Solid Electrolytes: A Design Strategy to Enhance Li-Ion Dynamics in Nanoconfined LiBH₄/Al₂O₃,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 125 (2021): 15052–15060.

[97] M. Gombotz, K. P. Pree, V. Pregartner, et al., “Insulator: Conductor Interfacial Regions—Li Ion Dynamics in the Nanocrystalline Dispersed Ionic Conductor LiF: TiO₂,” Solid State Ionics 369 (2021): 115726.

[98] J. Li, J. Chen, X. Xu, et al., “Enhanced Interphase Ion Transport via Charge-Rich Space Charge Layers for Ultra-Stable Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 15 (2025): 2402746.

[99] Z. Cheng, M. Liu, S. Ganapathy, et al., “Revealing the Impact of Space-Charge Layers on the Li-Ion Transport in All-Solid-State Batteries,” Joule 4 (2020): 1311–1323.

[100] H. Zhou, G. Zhu, S. Dong, et al., “Ethanol-Induced Ni²⁺-Intercalated Cobalt Organic Frameworks on Vanadium Pentoxide for Synergistically Enhancing the Performance of 3D-Printed Micro-Supercapacitors,” Advanced Materials 35 (2023): 2211523.

[101] H. Zhou, S. Gu, Y. Lu, et al., “Stabilizing Ni²⁺ in Hollow Nano MOF/Polymetallic Phosphides Composites for Enhanced Electrochemical Performance in 3D-Printed Micro-Supercapacitors,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2401856.

[102] S. Zhang, Y. Li, X. Zhuang, et al., “Nano-Metal-Organic Frameworks Isolated in Mesoporous Structures,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2418344.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.