Recent Advances in Built-in Electric Field for Efficient Energy Electrocatalysis

Abstract

Built-in electric field (BIEF) engineering has emerged as a pivotal strategy for enhancing electrocatalytic performance by tailoring interfacial charge redistribution in heterojunctions. As an innovative approach, BIEF engineering demonstrates remarkable potential in accelerating charge transport, optimizing intermediate adsorption/desorption, enhancing catalyst conductivity, and tailoring local reaction microenvironments. This review comprehensively summarizes recent advancements in BIEF-driven electrocatalysts, providing an overview of their fundamental mechanisms and pivotal advantages. First, electrocatalysts capable of forming BIEF are classified, and the representative geometric characteristics are discussed. Then, the techniques for characterizing BIEF are systematically summed up, including the direction and intensity analysis. Additionally, the positive effects of BIEF on the catalytic properties are highlighted and elaborated. Finally, this review offers an outlook on the future directions in this emerging field, aiming to offer a reference for the blossoming of advanced BIEF-driven electrocatalysts.

Keywords

built-in electric field / electrocatalysis / electron transfer / electronic structure / heterojunction

References

[1] A. Li, S. Kong, K. Adachi, et al., “Atomically Dispersed Hexavalent Iridium Oxide From MnO₂ reduction for Oxygen Evolution Catalysis,” Science 384 (2024): 666–670.

[2] W. Shi, T. Shen, C. Xing, et al., “Ultrastable Supported Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalyst Formed by Ripening-Induced Embedding,” Science 387 (2025): 791–796.

[3] Y. Wei, J. Zhang, B. Li, et al., “Self-Assembled Monolayer Interface With Reconstructed Hydrogen-Bond Network for Enhanced CO₂ Electroreduction,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2504515.

[4] M. Huo, H. Sun, Z. Jin, et al., “Tailoring Octahedron-Tetrahedron Synergism in Spinel Catalysts for Acidic Water Electrolysis,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 147 (2025): 10678–10689.

[5] Y. Liang, H. Zhang, M. Huo, et al., “Interface Storage Mechanism in Aqueous Ammonium-Ion Supercapacitors With Keggin-Type Polyoxometalates-Modified Ag-BTC,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2415545.

[6] X. Cui, M. Wu, X. Liu, et al., “Engineering Organic Polymers as Emerging Sustainable Materials for Powerful Electrocatalysts,” Chemical Society Reviews 53 (2024): 1447–1494.

[7] J.-T. Ren, L. Chen, H.-Y. Wang, and Z.-Y. Yuan, “High-Entropy Alloys in Electrocatalysis: From Fundamentals to Applications,” Chemical Society Reviews 52 (2023): 8319–8373.

[8] H. Xu, W. Zhao, D. Li, S. Ding, C. Xiao, and L. Zeng, “Emerging Supported Metal Atomic Clusters for Electrocatalytic Renewable Conversions,” ACS Catalysis 15 (2025): 2434–2458.

[9] L. Lin, P. Su, Y. Han, et al., “Advances in Regulating the Electron Spin Effect Toward Electrocatalysis Applications,” eScience 5 (2025): 100264.

[10] R. Wan, T. Yuan, L. Wang, B. Li, M. Liu, and B. Zhao, “Earth-Abundant Electrocatalysts for Acidic Oxygen Evolution,” Nature Catalysis 7 (2024): 1288–1304.

[11] Y. Chen, X. Wang, X.-Y. Li, et al., “Electrified Synthesis of n-Propanol Using a Dilute Alloy Catalyst,” Nature Catalysis 8 (2025): 239–247.

[12] M. Huo, Y. Liang, W. Liu, et al., “Synergistically Promoting Oxygen Electrocatalysis Through the Precise Integration of Atomically-Dispersed Fe Sites and Co Nanoparticles,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2405155.

[13] Q. Huang, G.-J. Xia, B. Huang, et al., “Activating Lattice Oxygen by a Defect-Engineered Fe₂O₃–CeO₂ nano-heterojunction for Efficient Electrochemical Water Oxidation,” Energy & Environmental Science 17 (2024): 5260–5272.

[14] L. Lin, P. Su, Y. Han, et al., “Advances in Regulating the Electron Spin Effect Toward Electrocatalysis Applications,” eScience 5 (2025): 100264.

[15] Y. Baik, S. Chi, K. Lee, D. Oh, K. Lee, and M. Choi, “Electron and Proton Storage on Separate Ru and BaO Domains Mediated by Conductive Low-Work-Function Carbon to Accelerate Ammonia Synthesis,” Nature Catalysis 8 (2025): 248–256.

[16] Q. Chen, Z. Xi, Z. Xu, et al., “Rapid Synthesis of Metastable Materials for Electrocatalysis,” Chemical Society Reviews 54 (2025): 4567–4616.

[17] X. Wang, M. Yu, and X. Feng, “Electronic Structure Regulation of Noble Metal-Free Materials Toward Alkaline Oxygen Electrocatalysis,” eScience 3 (2023): 100141.

[18] J. Liang, H. Cheng, B. Zhao, et al., “Boosting the Methanol Oxidation Reaction Activity of Pt–Ru Clusters via Resonance Energy Transfer,” Small 19 (2023): 2302149.

[19] H. Xu, J. Li, and X. Chu, “Interfacial Built-In Electric-Field for Boosting Energy Conversion Electrocatalysis,” Nanoscale Horizons 8 (2023): 441–452.

[20] M. Zhang, Z. Zhang, S. Zhang, et al., “Efficient Electrochemical Nitrate Reduction to Ammonia Driven by a Few Nanometer-Confined Built-In Electric Field,” ACS Catalysis 14 (2024): 10437–10446.

[21] X. Zhang, H. Sun, Y.-R. Wang, et al., “Dynamic Control of Asymmetric Charge Distribution for Electrocatalytic Urea Synthesis,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2408510.

[22] J. Lu, K. Huang, H. Lee, et al., “Reverse Oriented Dual-Interface Built-In Electric Fields of Robust Pd₁Mo₁Ta₂Oα Bifunctional Electrocatalysis for Zinc-Air Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2418211.

[23] P. Yi, Y. Song, Z. Liu, et al., “Boosting Alkaline Urea Oxidation With a Nickel Sulfide/Cobalt Oxide Heterojunction Catalyst via Interface Engineering,” Advanced Composite Hybrid Materials 6 (2023): 228.

[24] X. Zhao, M. Liu, Y. Wang, et al., “Designing a Built-In Electric Field for Efficient Energy Electrocatalysis,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 19959–19979.

[25] J. Hu, A. Al-Salihy, J. Wang, et al., “Improved Interface Charge Transfer and Redistribution in CuO-CoOOH p-n Heterojunction Nanoarray Electrocatalyst for Enhanced Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Science 8 (2021): 2103314.

[26] Z. Feng, F. Lu, Q. Hu, et al., “Built-In Electric Fields and Extra Electric Fields in the Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12 (2024): 18047–18070.

[27] N. Wang, S. Ning, X. Yu, et al., “Graphene Composites With Ru-RuO₂ Heterostructures: Highly Efficient Mott–Schottky-Type Electrocatalysts for pH-Universal Water Splitting and Flexible Zinc–Air Batteries,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 302 (2022): 120838.

[28] P. Bai, P. Wang, J. Mu, Y. Zhao, C. Du, and Y. Su, “Constructing Built-In Electric Field in Co/Co₉S₈ Heterojunction Encapsulated in N, S Co-Doped Carbon Polyhedron for High-Efficiency Oxygen Electrocatalysis,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 349 (2024): 123882.

[29] S. Ni, H. Qu, Z. Xu, et al., “Interfacial Engineering of the NiSe₂/FeSe₂ p–p Heterojunction for Promoting Oxygen Evolution Reaction and Electrocatalytic Urea Oxidation,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 299 (2021): 120638.

[30] X. Han, L. Zhao, Y. Liang, et al., “Interfacial Electron Redistribution on Lattice-Matching NiS₂/NiSe₂ Homologous Heterocages With Dual-Phase Synergy to Tune the Formation Routes of Li₂O₂,” Advanced Energy Materials 12 (2022): 2202747.

[31] P. Guo, P. Zhang, S. Cao, et al., “Constructing RuNi-MoO₂ Heterojunction With Optimal Built-In Electrical Field for Efficient Hydrogen Production in Anion Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzer,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2415375.

[32] J. He, S. Chen, Z. Ma, M. Wang, and Q. He, “Spatial Identification of Mott–Schottky Effect at Electrocatalytic Pd/Metal Oxide Interfaces for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” ACS Nano 18 (2024): 24283–24294.

[33] H. Mao, X. Liu, S. Wu, et al., “Built-In Electric Fields and Interfacial Electron Modulation: Enhancement of Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Alkaline Seawater,” Advanced Energy Materials 13 (2023): 2302251.

[34] X. Fan, D. Zhao, Z. Deng, et al., “Constructing Co@TiO₂ Nanoarray Heterostructure With Schottky Contact for Selective Electrocatalytic Nitrate Reduction to Ammonia,” Small 19 (2023): 2208036.

[35] S. Yun, Z. Gao, T. Yang, et al., “Constructing NiSe₂/MoSe₂ Mott–Schottky Heterojunctions Onto N-Doped Brain Coral-Carbon Spheres by Phase Separation Strategies for Advanced Energy Conversion Applications,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2314226.

[36] D. Qiao, S. Yun, M. Sun, et al., “1D/3D Trepang-Like N-Modified Carbon Confined Bimetal Carbides and Metal Cobalt: Boosting Electron Transfer via Dual Mott–Schottky Heterojunctions Triggered Built-In Electric Fields for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution and Tri-Iodide Reduction,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 334 (2023): 122830.

[37] K. Wang, H. Xu, B. Huang, et al., “Coupling Built-In Electric Field and Lewis Acid Triggers the Lattice Oxygen-Mediated Mechanism for Efficient Water Oxidation,” Small 21 (2025): 2411790.

[38] Y. Zheng, K. Peng, Q. Cao, and Z. W. Mao, “Metal Complexes Stimulating Immunogenic Pyroptosis as Burgeoning Antitumor Strategy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202415273.

[39] J. Liu, L. He, S. Zhao, et al., “A Robust n-n Heterojunction: Cu-N and B-N Boosting for Ambient Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction to Ammonia,” Small 19 (2023): 2302600.

[40] L. Wei, W. Yan, Z. Huang, et al., “Phase and Interface Engineering of a Ru–Sn Nanocatalyst for Enhanced Alkaline Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction,” Energy & Environmental Science 17 (2024): 5922–5930.

[41] M. Yuan, J. Chen, Y. Bai, et al., “Unveiling Electrochemical Urea Synthesis by Co-Activation of CO₂ and N2 With Mott–Schottky Heterostructure Catalysts,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 10910–10918.

[42] Y. Yang, X. Li, G. Liu, et al., “Hierarchical Ohmic Contact Interface Engineering for Efficient Hydrazine-Assisted Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2307979.

[43] M. Cheng, S. Wang, Z. Dai, et al., “Rectifying Heterointerface Facilitated C−N Coupling Dynamics Enables Efficient Urea Electrosynthesis Under Ultralow Potentials,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202413534.

[44] X. Lu, Z. Ma, Y. Chang, et al., “Mott–Schottky Construction Boosted Plasmon Thermal and Electronic Effects on the Ag/CoV-LDH Nanohybrids for Highly-Efficient Water Oxidation,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2313057.

[45] Z. Wang and S. Wang, “Constructing Built-In Electric Field to Accelerate the Asymmetric Local Charge Distribution for Efficient Alkaline Overall Water/Seawater Splitting,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 352 (2024): 124002.

[46] M. Qin, L. Chen, H. Zhang, et al., “Achieving Highly Efficient pH-Universal Hydrogen Evolution by Mott–Schottky Heterojunction of Co₂P/Co₄N,” Chemical Engineering Journal 454 (2023): 140230.

[47] Z. Sun, L. Lin, M. Yuan, et al., “Mott–Schottky Heterostructure Induce the Interfacial Electron Redistribution of MoS₂ for Boosting pH-Universal Hydrogen Evolution With Pt-Like Activity,” Nano Energy 101 (2022): 107563.

[48] X. Zhu, C. Ma, Y.-C. Wang, et al., “Mott–Schottky Contact Synergistically Boosts the Electroreduction of Nitrate to Ammonia Under Low-Nitrate Concentration,” Energy & Environmental Science 17 (2024): 2908–2920.

[49] Y. Huang, X. Zhang, L. Li, et al., “Mott–Schottky Barrier Enabling High-Performance Hydrazine-Assisted Hydrogen Generation at Ampere-Level Current Densities,” Advanced Functional Materials 3 (2024): 2401011.

[50] K. He, T. Tadesse Tsega, X. Liu, et al., “Utilizing the Space-Charge Region of the FeNi-LDH/CoP p-n Junction to Promote Performance in Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (2019): 11903–11909.

[51] E. Kim, S. Kim, Y. Kim, et al., “Activation of Hidden Catalytic Sites in 2D Basal Plane via p–n Heterojunction Interface Engineering Toward Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Energy Materials 15 (2025): 2403722.

[52] J.-Z. Chen, Z.-A. Li, J.-T. Lei, P.-P. Chen, and D.-L. Zhao, “Accelerated Ion-Electron Transport in Bi-Heterostructures Constructed Based on Ohmic Contacts for Efficient Bi-Directional Catalysis of Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Small 21 (2025): 2408284.

[53] J. Low, J. Yu, M. Jaroniec, S. Wageh, and A. A. Al-Ghamdi, “Heterojunction Photocatalysts,” Advanced Materials 29 (2017): 1601694.

[54] Z. Zhuang, L. Xia, J. Huang, et al., “Continuous Modulation of Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Activities of Single-Atom Catalysts Through p-n Junction Rectification,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): e202212335.

[55] M. Gu, L. Jiang, S. Zhao, et al., “Deciphering the Space Charge Effect of the p–n Junction Between Copper Sulfides and Molybdenum Selenides for Efficient Water Electrolysis in a Wide pH Range,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 15425–15439.

[56] Y. Qin, Y. Huang, Q. Ye, et al., “In Situ Construction of IrO_x Nanofilm on TiO_x for Boosting Low-Ir Catalysis in Practical PEM Electrolyze,” Advanced Energy Materials 15 (2025): 2405636.

[57] L. Chen, J.-T. Ren, and Z.-Y. Yuan, “Enabling Internal Electric Fields to Enhance Energy and Environmental Catalysis,” Advanced Energy Materials 13 (2023): 2203720.

[58] R. Zhang, J. Zhang, Y. Song, et al., “Cu₂O Nano-Homojunction for High-Efficiency Electrocatalytic CO₂-to-Ethylene Conversion,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202501554.

[59] Y. Li, C. Yang, J. Yue, H. Cong, and W. Luo, “Polymorphism-Interface-Induced Work Function Regulating on Ru Nanocatalyst for Enhanced Alkaline Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction,” Advanced Functional Materials 33 (2023): 2211586.

[60] F. Xie, Z. Wang, C.-W. Kao, J. Lan, Y.-R. Lu, and Y. Tan, “Asymmetric Local Electric Field Induced by Dual Heteroatoms on Copper Boosts Efficient CO₂ Reduction Over Ultrawide Potential Window,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202407661.

[61] P. Ye, K. Fang, H. Wang, et al., “Lattice Oxygen Activation and Local Electric Field Enhancement by Co-Doping Fe and F in CoO Nanoneedle Arrays for Industrial Electrocatalytic Water Oxidation,” Nature Communications 15 (2024): 1012.

[62] N. Li, T. Ma, H. Wang, et al., “Built-In Electric Field Induced by Defected Carbons Adjacent to Graphitic Nitrogen Valley for Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Zinc-Air Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 103 (2025): 813–825.

[63] Y. Zhang, P. Guo, S. Guo, et al., “Gradient Heating Epitaxial Growth Gives Well Lattice-Matched Mo₂C−Mo₂N Heterointerfaces that Boost Both Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution and Water Vapor Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202209703.

[64] H. Huang, L. Xu, S. Zuo, et al., “Pioneering Built-In Interfacial Electric Field for Enhanced Anion Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202414647.

[65] J. Li, J. Hu, M. Zhang, et al., “A Fundamental Viewpoint on the Hydrogen Spillover Phenomenon of Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Nature Communications 12 (2021): 3502.

[66] L. Chen, H. Y. Wang, W. W. Tian, et al., “Enabling Internal Electric Field in Heterogeneous Nanosheets to Significantly Accelerate Alkaline Hydrogen Electrocatalysis,” Small 20 (2024): 2307252.

[67] J. M. Yoo, H. Shin, D. Y. Chung, and Y.-E. Sung, “Carbon Shell on Active Nanocatalyst for Stable Electrocatalysis,” Accounts of Chemical Research 55 (2022): 1278–1289.

[68] S. Liu, L. Cui, S. Yin, et al., “Heterointerface-Triggered Electronic Structure Reformation: Pd/CuO Nano-Olives Motivate Nitrite Electroreduction to Ammonia,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 319 (2022): 121876.

[69] M. Wang, Q. Dong, S. Ji, et al., “‘Coupling-Conversion’ Effect Induced by Interface-Local Electric Field to Improve Oxygen Reaction Kinetics in Zinc-Air Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 481 (2024): 148601.

[70] G. Yang, S. Yun, T. Yang, J. Dang, Y. Zhang, and Z. Wang, “Designing a Schottky Coupled p–n Junction to Enhance the Kinetic Behavior of the Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12 (2024): 1804–1815.

[71] Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, X. Wang, et al., “Low-Coordinated Copper Facilitates the *CH₂CO Affinity at Enhanced Rectifying Interface of Cu/Cu₂O for Efficient CO₂-to-multicarbon Alcohols Conversion,” Nature Communications 15 (2024): 5172.

[72] J. Zhang, J. Li, W. Chen, et al., “Accelerating the Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer on Co9S8 Hollow Polyhedrons for Electrochemical Reduction of Nitrate to Ammonia,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 373 (2025): 125333.

[73] L. Yang, H. Liu, Y. Li, et al., “Customizing Bonding Affinity With Multi-Intermediates via Interfacial Electron Capture to Boost Hydrogen Evolution in Alkaline Water Electrolysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202414518.

[74] X. Zhang, Y. Dong, Q. Lv, et al., “Boosting Hydrogen Evolution of Nickel Phosphide by Expanding Built-In Electric Field With Tungsten Oxide,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 342 (2024): 123440.

[75] X. Wang, S. Li, Z. Yuan, et al., “Optimizing Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction via Interfacial Electric Field Modulation: Elevating d-Band Center in WS₂-WO₃ for Enhanced Intermediate Adsorption,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): e202303794.

[76] H. Zhang, N. Li, S. Gao, et al., “Quenching-Induced Atom-stepped Bimetallic Sulfide Heterointerface Catalysts for Industrial Hydrogen Generation,” eScience 5 (2025): 100311.

[77] Y. Zhou, B. Chu, Z. Sun, et al., “Surface Reconstruction and Charge Distribution Enabling Ni/W5N4 Mott–Schottky Heterojunction Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Efficient Urea-Assisted Water Electrolysis at a Large Current Density,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 323 (2023): 122168.

[78] L. Zhai, X. She, L. Zhuang, et al., “Modulating Built-In Electric Field via Variable Oxygen Affinity for Robust Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in Neutral Media,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61 (2022): e202116057.

[79] J. Li, G. Zhan, Y. Yu, and L. Zhang, “Superior Visible Light Hydrogen Evolution of Janus Bilayer Junctions via Atomic-Level Charge Flow Steering,” Nature Communications 7 (2016): 11480.

[80] Y. Liu, L. Cheng, S. Zhou, C. Niu, T. T. Isimjan, and X. Yang, “Built-In Electric Field-Driven Electron Transfer Behavior at Ru-RuP2 Heterointerface Fosters Efficient and CO-Resilient Alkaline Hydrogen Oxidation,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 362 (2025): 124709.

[81] R. Liu, L. Yu, X. He, et al., “Constructing Heterointerface of Bi/Bi₂S₃ With Built-In Electric Field Realizes Superior Sodium-Ion Storage Capability,” eScience 3 (2023): 100138.

[82] Y. Da, Z. Tian, R. Jiang, et al., “Single-Atom Pt Doping Induced p-Type to n-Type Transition in Nio Nanosheets Toward Self-Gating Modulated Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” ACS Nano 17 (2023): 18539–18547.

[83] X. Lu, Y. Shi, D. Tang, et al., “Accelerated Ionic and Charge Transfer Through Atomic Interfacial Electric Fields for Superior Sodium Storage,” ACS Nano 16 (2022): 4775–4785.

[84] G. Zhao, Y. Xing, Y. Liu, et al., “Built-In Electric Field in Bifunctional Electrocatalyst (Ni₃S₂@Ni₉S₈) for High-Efficiency OER and Overall Water Splitting Performance,” Materials Today Chemistry 34 (2023): 101758.

[85] B. Hao, M. Gan, J. Guo, et al., “Constructing 2D PtSe₂/PtCo Heterojunctions by Partial Selenization for Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2413916.

[86] T. Liu, L. Wang, B. Chen, et al., “Modulating Built-In Electric Field Strength in Ru/RuO₂ Interfaces through Ni Doping to Enhance Hydrogen Conversion at Ampere-Level Current,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202421869.

[87] J. Yin, J. Jin, Z. Yin, et al., “The Built-In Electric Field Across FeN/Fe3N Interface for Efficient Electrochemical Reduction of CO₂ to CO,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 1724.

[88] Q. Wang, S.-F. Hung, K. Lao, et al., “Breaking the Linear Scaling Limit in Multi-Electron-Transfer Electrocatalysis Through Intermediate Spillover,” Nature Catalysis 8 (2025): 378–388.

[89] C. He, Q. Liu, H. Wang, et al., “Regulating Reversible Oxygen Electrocatalysis by Built-In Electric Field of Heterojunction Electrocatalyst with Modified d-Band,” Small 19 (2023): 2207474.

[90] Z. Li, B. Li, M. Yu, C. Yu, and P. Shen, “Amorphous Metallic Ultrathin Nanostructures: A Latent Ultra-High-Density Atomic-Level Catalyst for Electrochemical Energy Conversion,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47 (2022): 26956–26977.

[91] Y. Liu, J. Ding, F. Li, et al., “Modulating Hydrogen Adsorption via Charge Transfer at the Semiconductor–Metal Heterointerface for Highly Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Catalysis,” Advanced Materials 35 (2023): 2207114.

[92] W. Zhang, L. Yang, Z. Li, et al., “Regulating Hydrogen/Oxygen Species Adsorption via Built-In Electric Field -Driven Electron Transfer Behavior at the Heterointerface for Efficient Water Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202400888.

[93] S. Jin, Z. Hao, K. Zhang, Z. Yan, and J. Chen, “Advances and Challenges for the Electrochemical Reduction of CO₂ to CO: From Fundamentals to Industrialization,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 20627–20648.

[94] X. Liu, X. Zhao, S. Cao, et al., “Local Hydroxyl Enhancement Design of NiFe Sulfide Electrocatalyst Toward Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 331 (2023): 122715.

[95] W.-J. Sun, H.-Q. Ji, L.-X. Li, et al., “Built-In Electric Field Triggered Interfacial Accumulation Effect for Efficient Nitrate Removal at Ultra-Low Concentration and Electroreduction to Ammonia,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60 (2021): 22933–22939.

[96] X. Zhao, Q. Feng, M. Liu, et al., “Built-In Electric Field Promotes Interfacial Adsorption and Activation of CO₂ for C1 Products Over a Wide Potential Window,” ACS Nano 18 (2024): 9678–9687.

[97] Y. Zeng, Z. Cao, J. Liao, et al., “Construction of Hydroxide pn Junction for Water Splitting Electrocatalysis,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 292 (2021): 120160.

[98] T. Wang, P. Wang, W. Zang, et al., “Nanoframes of Co₃O₄–Mo₂N Heterointerfaces Enable High-Performance Bifunctionality Toward Both Electrocatalytic HER and OER,” Advanced Functional Materials 32 (2022): 2107382.

[99] K. Ji, S. Wang, S. Yao, et al., “Built-In Electric Field in Ru/CoP Bifunctional Electrocatalyst Enhances Hydrazine-Assisted Water Splitting,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2503182.

[100] S. Zhang, C. Tan, R. Yan, et al., “Constructing Built-In Electric Field in Heterogeneous Nanowire Arrays for Efficient Overall Water Electrolysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62 (2023): e202302795.

[101] W. Ma, Y. Zhang, L. Hu, X. Lv, and J. Dang, “Dynamic Restructuring of Asymmetric Built-In Electric Field Catalysts Facilitates the Efficient Water Splitting,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2422734.

[102] S. Sun, Z. Wan, Y. Xu, et al., “Phase Engineering Modulates the Electronic Structure of the IrO₂/MoS₂ Heterojunction for Efficient and Stable Water Splitting,” ACS Nano 19 (2025): 12090–12101.

[103] W. Chen, W. Wei, F. Li, et al., “Tunable Built-In Electric Field in Ru Nanoclusters-Based Electrocatalyst Boosts Water Splitting and Simulated Seawater Electrolysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2310690.

[104] L.-L. Ma, Y.-R. Hao, J. Sun, et al., “Triggered Directed Electron Redistribution Endowed by Efficient Ohmic Contacts of NiMoN/Ni₃S₂ for Boosting Large Current-Density Overall Seawater Splitting,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2409924.

[105] H. Yang, B. Wang, S. Kou, G. Lu, and Z. Liu, “Mott–Schottky Heterojunction of Co/Co2P With Built-In Electric Fields for Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysis and Zinc-Air Battery,” Chemical Engineering Journal 425 (2021): 131589.

[106] F. Gong, Z. Chen, C. Chang, et al., “Hollow Mo/MoS_Vn Nanoreactors With Tunable Built-In Electric Fields for Sustainable Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): 2415269.

[107] H.-J. Shen, J.-W. Kang, Z.-F. Wang, et al., “Integrating Internal Electric Field in PdRh-Cu₂O/Cu Nanorods: Revolutionizing Low-Energy Hydrogen Production and Biomass Upgrading,” Chemical Engineering Journal 504 (2025): 158847.

[108] K. Wang, H. Xu, H. Xing, et al., “Phase-Regulated Built-In Electric Field Intensity Mediates Reconstructing for Efficient Water Oxidation,” Chemical Engineering Journal 500 (2024): 157316.

[109] W. Wu, Y. Wang, S. Song, et al., “Built-In Electric Field in Freestanding Hydroxide/Sulfide Heterostructures for Industrially Relevant Oxygen Evolution,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64 (2025): e202504972.

[110] Y. Liu, Y. Huang, D. Wu, et al., “Ultrathin and Conformal Depletion Layer of Core/Shell Heterojunction Enables Efficient and Stable Acidic Water Oxidation,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 146 (2024): 26897–26908.

[111] C. Han, C. Cheng, W. Lv, et al., “Hydrogen Spillover Enabled by Edge Dislocations for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2425615.

[112] Y. Shen, X.-L. Zhang, M.-R. Qu, et al., “Cr Dopant Mediates Hydroxyl Spillover on RuO₂ for High-Efficiency Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis,” Nature Communications 15 (2024): 7861.

[113] W. Gou, S. Zhang, Y. Wang, et al., “Oxygen Spillover From RuO₂ to MoO₃ Enhances the Activity and Durability of RuO₂ for Acidic Oxygen Evolution,” Energy & Environmental Science 17 (2024): 6755–6765.

[114] S. Zhao, Z.-H. Wang, J.-Y. Wang, et al., “Unveiling the Mysteries of Hydrogen Spillover Phenomenon in Hydrogen Evolution Reaction: Fundamentals, Evidence and Enhancement Strategies,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 524 (2025): 216321.

[115] X. Liu, X. Wang, K. Li, et al., “Diluting the Resistance of Built-In Electric Fields in Oxygen Vacancy-Enriched Ru/NiMoO_4-x for Enhanced Hydrogen Spillover in Alkaline Seawater Splitting,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202316319.

[116] Y. Hong, S. Jeong, J. H. Seol, et al., “Ru₂P/Ir₂P Heterostructure Promotes Hydrogen Spillover for Efficient Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2401426.

[117] S. Liu, Z. Li, Y. Chang, et al., “Substantial Impact of Built-In Electric Field and Electrode Potential on the Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution Reaction of Ru−CoP Urchin Arrays,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63 (2024): e202400069.

[118] W. Song, C. Xia, S. Zaman, S. Chen, and C. Xiao, “Advances in Stability of NiFe-Based Anodes Toward Oxygen Evolution Reaction for Alkaline Water Electrolysis,” Small 20 (2024): 2406075.

[119] Y. Zeng, M. Zhao, Z. Huang, et al., “Surface Reconstruction of Water Splitting Electrocatalysts,” Advanced Energy Materials 12 (2022): 2201713.

[120] J. Feng, X. Wang, and H. Pan, “In-Situ Reconstruction of Catalyst in Electrocatalysis,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2411688.

[121] C. Ni, K. Wang, L. Jin, et al., “Built-In Electric Field Guides Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalyst Reconstruction,” Chemical Communications 61 (2025): 658–668.

[122] L. Zheng, H. Luo, Y. Zhong, et al., “Wood-Derived Continuously Oriented Channels Coupled With Tunable Built-In Electric Fields for Efficient Oxygen Evolution,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 360 (2025): 124550.

[123] H. Xu, L. Yang, L. Jin, et al., “Enhancing Interfacial Electron Transfer Through Pani Electron Bridge for Tailoring Dynamic Reconstruction and Achieving High-Performance Water Oxidation,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 677 (2025): 158–166.

[124] Z. Lu, J. Wang, P. Zhang, et al., “Directed Electron Transport Induced Surface Reconstruction of 2D NiFe-LDH/Stanene Heterojunction Catalysts for Efficient Oxygen Evolution,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 353 (2024): 124073.

[125] T. Song, H. Xue, J. Sun, et al., “Incorporating a Built-In Electric Field into a NiFe LDH Heterojunction for Enhanced Oxygen Evolution and Urea Oxidation,” Chemical Communications 60 (2024): 972–975.

[126] J. Wang, X. Li, H. Liang, et al., “Built-In Electric Field in 2D/2D LDH/Antimonene Heterostructure to Induce Stable β-NiOOH at Ultralow Potential for Cost-Effective Water Electrolysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 35 (2025): 2503596.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Neutralization published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.