Recent applications of Traditional Chinese Medicine in cosmetology: a Review

Abstract

Medical cosmetology is a rapidly developing subspecialty of aesthetic medicine that deals with cosmetic issues like pigmentation, skin aging, and adipose deposition. Located between cosmetic surgery and everyday skin and beauty care, the method typically has a high safety profile, few adverse effects, and a quick recovery time. Nevertheless, there are still concerns about the biocompatibility of some of the cosmetic ingredients, as well as the problem of possible safety and the prevalence of allergic reactions. To overcome these limitations, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) herbs, which are natural plant-based, are considered as safe and biocompatible. The focus of this review is to understand the molecular and biological pathways and therapeutic targets of the most common issues in medical cosmetology. We then review existing literature on TCM herbs and their active constituents that target these conditions. Additionally, recent achievements in the study and practical application of TCM herbs using modern transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) are presented. This paper, as a review, offers an innovative approach to the combination of TCM herbs and modern biomedical engineering strategies to be used in medical cosmetology.

Keywords

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) / Medical Cosmetology / Pigmentation / Skin Aging / Adipose Accumulation / Review

Funding

This work was supported by the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (No. 2023A1515110565).

Declaration of competing interests

These authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

References

[1] Edmonds A. Can medicine be aesthetic? Med Anthropol Q. 2013; 27(2):233-252. https://doi.org/10.1111/maq.12025.

[2] Huang Y, Yu H, Wang L, et al. Research progress on cosmetic microneedle systems: preparation, property and application. Eur Polym J. 2022; 163:110942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110942.

[3] Hu S, Li Z, Cores J, et al. Needle-free injection of exosomes derived from human dermal fibroblast spheroids ameliorates skin photoaging. ACS Nano. 2019; 13(10):11273-11282. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.9b04384.

[4] Zhang B, Gong J, He L, et al. Exosomes based advancements for application in medical aesthetics. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2022; 10:1083640. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.1083640.

[5] Lourith N, Kanlayavattanakul M. Hair loss and herbs for treatment. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2013; 12(3):210-222. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12051.

[6] Couteau C, Coiffard L. Overview of skin whitening agents: drugs and cosmetic products. Cosmetics. 2016; 3(3):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics3030027.

[7] Kennedy J, Verne S, Griffith R, et al. Non-invasive subcutaneous fat reduction: a review. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015; 29(9):1679-1688. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.12994.

[8] Chuarienthong P, Lourith N, Leelapornpisid P. Clinical efficacy comparison of anti-wrinkle cosmetics containing herbal flavonoids. Int J Cosmetic Sci. 2010; 32(2):99-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00522.x.

[9] Kawada A, Konishi N, Oiso N, et al. Evaluation of anti-wrinkle effects of a novel cosmetic containing niacinamide. J Dermatol. 2008; 35(10):637-642. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2008.00537.x.

[10] Haider A, Shaw JC.Treatment of acne vulgaris. JAMA. 2004; 292(6):726-735. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.292.6.726.

[11] Shin JW, Park KC. Current clinical use of depigmenting agents. Dermatol Sin. 2014; 32(4):205-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsi.2014.07.003.

[12] Nordlund J, Grimes P, Ortonne J. The safety of hydroquinone. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2006; 20(7):781-787. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01670.x.

[13] Devi VK, Jain N, Valli KS. Importance of novel drug delivery systems in herbal medicines. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010; 4(7):27. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.65322.

[14] Pillaiyar T, Manickam M, Jung SH. Recent development of signaling pathways inhibitors of melanogenesis. Cell Signal. 2017; 40:99-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2017.09.004.

[15] Bento-Lopes L, Cabaço LC, Charneca J, et al. Melanin’s journey from melanocytes to keratinocytes: uncovering the molecular mechanisms of melanin transfer and processing. Int J Mol Sci. 2023; 24(14):11289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241411289.

[16] Nautiyal A, Wairkar S. Management of hyperpigmentation: current treatments and emerging therapies. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2021; 34(6):1000-1014. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcmr.12986.

[17] Picardo M, Carrera M. New and experimental treatments of cloasma and other hypermelanoses. Dermatol Clin. 2007; 25(3):353-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2007.04.012.

[18] Haddad AL, Matos LF, Brunstein F, et al. A clinical, prospective, randomized, double-blind trial comparing skin whitening complex with hydroquinone vsplacebo in the treatment of melasma. Int J Dermatol. 2003; 42(2):153-156. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-4362.2003.01621.x.

[19] Pastorino G, Cornara L, Soares S, et al. Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): a phytochemical and pharmacological review. Phytother Res. 2018; 32(12):2323-2339. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6178.

[20] Nerya O, Vaya J, Musa R, et al. Glabrene and isoliquiritigenin as tyrosinase inhibitors from licorice roots. J Agric Food Chem. 2003; 51(5):1201-1207. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf020935u.

[21] Pan C, Liu X, Zheng Y, et al. The mechanisms of melanogenesis inhibition by glabridin: molecular docking, PKA/MITF and MAPK/MITF pathways. Food Sci Hum Wellness. 2023; 12(1):212-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2022.07.011.

[22] Jiang R, Xu XH, Wang K, et al.Ethyl acetate extract from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer and its main constituents inhibit α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced melanogenesis by suppressing oxidative stress in B16 mouse melanoma cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017; 208:149-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.07.004.

[23] Liu J, Xu X, Jiang R, et al. Vanillic acid in Panax ginseng root extract inhibits melanogenesis in B16F10 cells via inhibition of the NO/PKG signaling pathway. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2019:1205-1215. https://doi.org/10.1080/09168451.2019.1606694.

[24] Pang M, Xu R, Xi R, et al. Molecular understanding of the therapeutic potential of melanin inhibiting natural products. RSC Med Chem. 2024; 15(7):1791-1809. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4MD00224E.

[25] Liu J, Jiang R, Zhou J, et al. Salicylic acid in ginseng root alleviates skin hyperpigmentation disorders by inhibiting melanogenesis and melanosome transport. Eur J Pharmacol. 2021; 910:174458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174458.

[26] Laneri S, Di Lorenzo RM, Bernardi A, et al. Aloe barbadensis: a plant of nutricosmetic interest. Nat Prod Commun. 2020; 15(7):1934578X20932744. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X20932744.

[27] Mikayoulou M, Mayr F, Temml V, et al. Anti-tyrosinase activity of South African Aloe species and isolated compounds plicataloside and aloesin. Fitoterapia. 2021; 150:104828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2021.104828.

[28] Jones K, Hughes J, Hong M, et al. Modulation of melanogenesis by aloesin: a competitive inhibitor of tyrosinase. Pigm Cell Res. 2002; 15(5):335-340. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0749.2002.02014.x.

[29] Du Z, Jiang Y, Tang Z, et al. Antioxidation and tyrosinase inhibition of polyphenolic curcumin analogs. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2011; 75(12):2351-2358. https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.110547.

[30] Sato K, Toriyama M. Depigmenting effect of catechins. Molecules. 2009; 14(11):4425-4432. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules14114425.

[31] Swaraz AM, Sultana F, Ahmed KS, et al. Polyphenols profile and enzyme inhibitory properties of Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC.: a potential candidate against obesity, aging, and skin disorder. Chem Biodivers. 2022; 19(9):e202200282. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202200282.

[32] Wang YC, Haung XY, Chiu CC, et al. Inhibitions of melanogenesis via Phyllanthus emblica fruit extract powder in B16F 10 cells. Food Biosci. 2019; 28:177-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2019.01.006.

[33] Wu L, Chen C, Cheng C, et al. Evaluation of tyrosinase inhibitory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiaging activities of Magnolia officinalis extracts after Aspergillus niger fermentation. BioMed Res Int. 2018; 2018:5201786. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5201786.

[34] Papaccio F, D’Arino A, Caputo S, et al. Focus on the contribution of oxidative stress in skin aging. Antioxidants. 2022; 11(6):1121. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11061121.

[35] Farage MA, Miller KW, Elsner P, et al. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors in skin ageing: a review. Int J Cosmetic Sci. 2008; 30(2):87-95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2007.00415.x.

[36] Rinnerthaler M, Bischof J, Streubel MK, et al. Oxidative stress in aging human skin. Biomolecules. 2015; 5(2):545-589. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom5020545.

[37] Zheng H, Zhang M, Luo H, et al. Isoorientin alleviates UVB-induced skin injury by regulating mitochondrial ROS and cellular autophagy. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2019; 514(4):1133-1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.04.195.

[38] Li X, Li C, Zhang W, et al. Inflammation and aging: signaling pathways and intervention therapies. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023; 8(1):239. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01502-8.

[39] Han X, Lei Q, Xie J, et al. Potential regulators of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype during senescence and aging. J Gerontol A-Biol Sci Med Sci. 2022; 77(11):2207-2218. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glac097.

[40] Lephart ED. Skin aging and oxidative stress: equol’s anti-aging effects via biochemical and molecular mechanisms. Ageing Res Rev. 2016; 31:36-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2016.08.001.

[41] Slominski AT, Zmijewski MA, Plonka PM, et al. How UV light touches the brain and endocrine system through skin, and why. Endocrinology. 2018; 159(5):1992-2007. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2017-03230.

[42] Parisi A, Turner J. Variations in the short wavelength cut-off of the solar UV spectra. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2006; 5:331-335. https://doi.org/10.1039/b512029b.

[43] Gonzaga ER. Role of UV light in photodamage, skin aging, and skin cancer. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2009; 10(1):19-24. https://doi.org/10.2165/0128071-200910001-00004.

[44] Berezutsky MA, Durnova NA, Vlasova IA. Experimental and clinical studies of mechanisms of the antiaging effects of chemical compounds in Astragalus membranaceus (Review). Adv Gerontol. 2020; 10(2):142-149. https://doi.org/10.1134/S2079057020020046.

[45] Yan X, Miao J, Zhang B, et al. Study on semi-bionic extraction of Astragalus polysaccharide and its anti-aging activity in vivo. Front Nutr. 2023; 10:1201919. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1201919.

[46] Niu Y, Chen Y, Xu H, et al. Astragaloside IV promotes antiphotoaging by enhancing the proliferation and paracrine activity of adipose-derived stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 2020; 29(19):1285-1293. https://doi.org/10.1089/scd.2020.0092.

[47] Zhao T, Tang H, Xie L, et al. Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. (Lamiaceae): a review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2019; 71(9):1353-1369. https://doi.org/10.1111/jphp.13129.

[48] Chen Q, Wang C, Yang Z, et al. Differences in anti-inflammatory effects between two specifications of Scutellariae Radix in LPS-induced macrophages in vitro. Chin J Nat Med. 2017; 15(7):515-524. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(17)30077-8.

[49] Yoon JJ, Jeong JW, Choi EO, et al. Protective effects of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi against hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in HaCaT human skin keratinocytes. Excli J. 2017; 16:426-438. https://doi.org/10.17179/excli2016-817.

[50] Gorgoulis V, Adams PD, Alimonti A, et al. Cellular senescence: defining a path forward. Cell. 2019; 179(4):813-827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.10.005.

[51] Lim H, Kwon YS, Kim D, et al. Flavonoids from Scutellaria baicalensis inhibit senescence-associated secretory phenotype production by interrupting IκBζ/C/EBPβ pathway: inhibition of age-related inflammation. Phytomedicine. 2020; 76:153255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153255.

[52] Sun G, Dang Y, Lin Y, et al. Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi regulates REV-ERBα/BMAL1 to protect against skin aging in mice. Front Pharmacol. 2022: 13:991917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.991917.eCollection2022.

[53] Buranasudja V, Rani D, Malla A, et al. Insights into antioxidant activities and anti-skin-aging potential of callus extract from Centella asiatica (L.). Sci Rep. 2021; 11(1):13459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92958-7.

[54] Kumari S, Deori M, Elancheran R, et al. In vitro and in vivo antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic properties and chemical characterization of Centella asiatica (L.) extract. Front Pharmacol. 2016: 7:400 https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2016.00400.

[55] Kim S, Kim Y, Kim JE, et al. Berberine inhibits TPA-induced MMP-9 and IL-6 expression in normal human keratinocytes. Phytomedicine. 2008; 15(5):340-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2007.09.011.

[56] Wang J, Wang L, Lou GH, et al. Coptidis Rhizoma: a comprehensive review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Pharm Biol. 2019; 57(1):193-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880209.2019.1577466.

[57] Thring TS, Hili P, Naughton DP. Anti-collagenase, anti-elastase and anti-oxidant activities of extracts from 21 plants. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2009; 9(1):1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-9-27.

[58] Nema NK, Maity N, Sarkar BK, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase, hyaluronidase and elastase inhibitory potential of standardized extract of. Centella asiatica. Pharm Biol. 2013; 51(9):1182-1187. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2013.782505.

[59] Ablon G, Rotunda AM. Treatment of lower eyelid fat pads using phosphatidylcholine: clinical trial and review. Dermatol Surg. 2004; 30(3):422-427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2004.30114.x.

[60] Rzany B, Griffiths T, Walker P, et al. Reduction of unwanted submental fat with ATX‐ 101 (deoxycholic acid), an adipocytolytic injectable treatment: results from a phase III, randomized, placebo‐controlled study. Br J Dermatol. 2014; 170(2):445-453. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12695.

[61] Reece EM, Pessa JE, Rohrich RJ. The mandibular septum: anatomical observations of the jowls in aging—implications for facial rejuvenation. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008; 121(4):1414-1420. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000302462.61624.26.

[62] Gierloff M, Stöhring C, Buder T, et al. The subcutaneous fat compartments in relation to aesthetically important facial folds and rhytides. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012; 65(10):1292-1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2012.04.047.

[63] Carmen GY, Víctor SM.Signalling mechanisms regulating lipolysis. Cell Signal. 2006; 18(4):401-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2005.08.009.

[64] Braun K, Oeckl J, Westermeier J, et al. Non-adrenergic control of lipolysis and thermogenesis in adipose tissues. J Exp Biol. 2018; 221(Suppl_1):jeb165381. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.165381.

[65] Egan JJ, Greenberg AS, Chang MK, et al. Mechanism of hormone-stimulated lipolysis in adipocytes: translocation of hormone-sensitive lipase to the lipid storage droplet. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992; 89(18):8537-8541. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.18.8537.

[66] Duncan RE, Ahmadian M, Jaworski K, et al. Regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes. Annu Rev Nutr. 2007; 27:79-101. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093734.

[67] Holm C, Østerlund T, Laurell H, et al. Molecular mechanisms regulating hormone-sensitive lipase and lipolysis. Annu Rev Nutr. 2000; 20(1):365-393. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.20.1.365.

[68] Li H, Qi J, Li L. Phytochemicals as potential candidates to combat obesity via adipose non-shivering thermogenesis. Pharmacol Res. 2019; 147:104393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2019.104393.

[69] Snyder PB, Esselstyn JM, Loughney K, et al. The role of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases in the regulation of adipocyte lipolysis. J Lipid Res. 2005; 46(3):494-503. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M400362-JLR200.

[70] Dai Z, Zhang Y, Meng Y, et al. Targeted delivery of nutraceuticals derived from food for the treatment of obesity and its related complications. Food Chem. 2023; 418:135980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135980.

[71] Zwick RK, Guerrero-Juarez CF, Horsley V, et al. Anatomical, physiological, and functional diversity of adipose tissue. Cell Metab. 2018; 27(1):68-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2017.12.002.

[72] Cohen P, Kajimura S. The cellular and functional complexity of thermogenic fat. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2021; 22(6):393-409. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-021-00350-0.

[73] Wang W, Seale P. Control of brown and beige fat development. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2016; 17(11):691-702. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2016.96.

[74] Yang X, Wu F, Li L, et al. Celastrol alleviates metabolic disturbance in high‐fat diet-induced obese mice through increasing energy expenditure by ameliorating metabolic inflammation. Phytother Res. 2021; 35(1):297-310. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6800.

[75] Pei Y, Otieno D, Gu I, et al. Effect of quercetin on nonshivering thermogenesis of brown adipose tissue in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. J Nutr Biochem. 2021; 88:108532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2020.108532.

[76] Jung Y, Park J, Kim HL, et al. Vanillic acid attenuates obesity via activation of the AMPK pathway and thermogenic factors in vivo and in vitro. FASEB J. 2018; 32(3):1388-1402. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201700231RR.

[77] Liu J, Li Y, Yang P, et al. Gypenosides reduced the risk of overweight and insulin resistance in C57BL/6J mice through modulating adipose thermogenesis and gut microbiota. J Agric Food Chem. 2017; 65(42):9237-9246. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b03387.

[78] Ma PY, Li XY, Wang YL, et al. Natural bioactive constituents from herbs and nutraceuticals promote browning of white adipose tissue. Pharmacol Res. 2022; 178:106175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106175.

[79] Li Y, Lin W, Huang J, et al. Anti-cancer effects of Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino (Jiaogulan). Chin Med. 2016; 11(1):43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-016-0114-9.

[80] Liang H, Chen X, Li Q, et al. Dammarane-type triterpenoids from Gynostemma longipes and their protective activities on hypoxia-induced injury in PC12 cells. Chin J Nat Med. 2024; 22(5):466-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(24)60643-6.

[81] Lee HS, Lim SM, Jung JI, et al. Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract ameliorates high-fat diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6N mice by upregulating SIRT1. Nutrients. 2019; 11(10):2475. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11102475.

[82] Sanati S, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H, et al. A review of the effects of Capsicum annuum L. and its constituent, capsaicin, in metabolic syndrome. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2018; 21(5):439-448. https://doi.org/10.22038/ijbms.2018.25200.6238.

[83] Oh MJ, Lee HB, Yoo G, et al. Anti-obesity effects of red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) leaf extract on 3T3-L 1 preadipocytes and high fat diet-fed mice. Food Funct. 2023; 14(1):292-304. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2FO03201E.

[84] Azlan A, Sultana S, Huei CS, et al. Antioxidant, anti-obesity, nutritional and other beneficial effects of different chili pepper: a review. Molecules. 2022; 27(3):898. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030898.

[85] Abdillah AM, Yun JW. Capsaicin induces ATP-dependent thermogenesis via the activation of TRPV1/β3-AR/α1-AR in 3T3-L 1 adipocytes and mouse model. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2024; 755:109975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2024.109975.

[86] Baskaran P, Krishnan V, Ren J, et al. Capsaicin induces browning of white adipose tissue and counters obesity by activating TRPV1 channel-dependent mechanisms. Br J Pharmacol. 2016; 173(15):2369-2389. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13514.

[87] Lv H, Jiang L, Zhu M, et al. The genus Tripterygium: a phytochemistry and pharmacological review. Fitoterapia. 2019; 137:104190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104190.

[88] Choi SK, Park S, Jang S, et al. Cascade regulation of PPARγ2 and C/EBPα signaling pathways by celastrol impairs adipocyte differentiation and stimulates lipolysis in 3T3-L 1 adipocytes. Metabolism. 2016; 65(5):646-654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2016.01.009.

[89] Ma X, Xu L, Alberobello AT, et al. Celastrol protects against obesity and metabolic dysfunction through activation of a HSF1-PGC1α transcriptional axis. Cell Metab. 2015; 22(4):695-708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.08.005.

[90] Huang B, Yuan HD, Kim DY, et al. Cinnamaldehyde prevents adipocyte differentiation and adipogenesis via regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways. J Agric Food Chem. 2011; 59(8):3666-3673. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf104814t.

[91] Kang NH, Mukherjee S, Min T, et al. Trans-anethole ameliorates obesity via induction of browning in white adipocytes and activation of brown adipocytes. Biochimie. 2018; 151:1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2018.05.009.

[92] Shen H, Huang S, Kung C, et al. Genistein ameliorated obesity accompanied with adipose tissue browning and attenuation of hepatic lipogenesis in ovariectomized rats with high-fat diet. J Nutr Biochem. 2019; 67:111-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.02.001.

[93] Szumała P, Macierzanka A. Topical delivery of pharmaceutical and cosmetic macromolecules using microemulsion systems. Int J Pharm. 2022; 615:121488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121488.

[94] Chookiat S, Theansungnoen T, Kiattisin K, et al. Nanoemulsions containing Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. seed extract for cosmetic applications. Cosmetics. 2024; 11(1):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics11010029.

[95] McClements DJ. Nanoemulsions versus microemulsions: terminology, differences, and similarities. Soft Matter. 2012; 8(6):1719-1729. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2SM06903B.

[96] Bhalke RD, Kulkarni SS, Kendre PN, et al. A facile approach to fabrication and characterization of novel herbal microemulsion-based UV shielding cream. Future J Pharm Sci. 2020; 6(1):76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-020-00075-5.

[97] Naseri N, Valizadeh H, Zakeri-Milani P. Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers: structure, preparation and application. Adv Pharm Bull. 2015; 5(3):305-313. https://doi.org/10.15171/apb.2015.043.

[98] Tang L, Winkeljann B, Feng S, et al. Recent advances in superlubricity of liposomes for biomedical applications. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2022; 218:112764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112764.

[99] Bonechi C, Donati A, Tamasi G, et al. Protective effect of quercetin and rutin encapsulated liposomes on induced oxidative stress. Biophys Chem. 2018; 233:55-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpc.2017.11.003.

[100] Khan J, Alexander A, Ajazuddin, et al. Recent advances and future prospects of phyto-phospholipid complexation technique for improving pharmacokinetic profile of plant actives. J Control Release. 2013; 168(1):50-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.02.025.

[101] Zhang C, Lu Y, Ai Y, et al. Glabridin liposome ameliorating UVB-induced erythema and lethery skin by suppressing inflammatory cytokine production. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2021; 31(4):630-636. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2011.11006.

[102] Naik AA, Gadgoli CH, Naik AB. Formulation containing phytosomes of carotenoids from Nyctanthes arbor-tristis and Tagetes patula protect D-galactose induced skin aging in mice. Clin Complement Med Pharmacol. 2023; 3(1):100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccmp.2022.100070.

[103] Pereira A, Ramalho MJ, Silva R, et al. Vine cane compounds to prevent skin cells aging through solid lipid nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics. 2022; 14(2):240. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14020240.

[104] Ghezzi M, Pescina S, Padula C, et al. Polymeric micelles in drug delivery: an insight of the techniques for their characterization and assessment in biorelevant conditions. J Control Release. 2021; 332:312-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.02.031.

[105] Wang Z, Xue Y, Chen T, et al. Glycyrrhiza acid micelles loaded with licochalcone A for topical delivery: co-penetration and anti-melanogenic effect. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2021; 167:106029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2021.106029.

[106] Luther DC, Huang R, Jeon T, et al. Delivery of drugs, proteins, and nucleic acids using inorganic nanoparticles. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2020; 156:188-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2020.06.020.

[107] Du Q, Liu Q. ROS-responsive hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with Glabridin for anti-pigmentation properties. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2021; 327:111429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2021.111429.

[108] Pham DT, Nguyen DXT, Lieu R, et al. Silk nanoparticles for the protection and delivery of guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) extract for cosmetic industry, a new approach for an old herb. Drug Deliv. 2023; 30(1):2168793. https://doi.org/10.1080/10717544.2023.2168793.

[109] Bao C, Li Z, Liang S, et al. Microneedle patch delivery of capsaicin-containing α-lactalbumin nanomicelles to adipocytes achieves potent anti-obesity effects. Adv Funct Mater. 2021; 31(20):2011130. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202011130.

[110] Yang W, Cao M, Wang W, et al. “one stone three birds” Multifunctional composite soluble microneedle patch based on. strategy for promoting the healing of infectious wounds. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2024; 241:114049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.114049.

[111] Mitura S, Sionkowska A, Jaiswal A. Biopolymers for hydrogels in cosmetics: review. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2020; 31:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-020-06390-w.

[112] Mendes de Moraes F, Trauthman SC, Zimmer F, et al. A polysaccharide-based hydrogel as a green platform for enhancing transdermal delivery. Sustain Chem Pharm. 2022; 25:100604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2022.100604.

[113] Azimi H, Fallah-Tafti M, Khakshur AA, et al. A review of phytotherapy of acne vulgaris: perspective of new pharmacological treatments. Fitoterapia. 2012; 83(8):1306-1317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2012.03.026.

[114] Gao Y, Liang A, Fan X, et al. Safety research in traditional Chinese medicine: methods, applications, and outlook. Engineering. 2019; 5(1):76-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2018.11.019.

[115] Lam RPK, Lau EHY, Yip WL, et al. Traditional Chinese medicine poisoning in the emergency departments in Hong Kong: trend, clinical presentation and predictors for poor outcome. World J Emerg Med. 2021; 12(2):143-150. https://doi.org/10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2021.02.010.

[116] He X, Wan F, Su W, et al. Research progress on skin aging and active ingredients. Molecules. 2023; 28(14):5556. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28145556.

[117] Jin YH, Lee SJ, Chung MH, et al. Aloesin and arbutin inhibit tyrosinase activity in a synergistic manner via a different action mechanism. Arch Pharm Res. 1999; 22:232-236. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02976355.

[118] Maeda K, Fukuda M. Arbutin: mechanism of its depigmenting action in human melanocyte culture. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996; 276(2):765-769. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3565(25)12357-4.

[119] Choi S, Park YI, Lee SK, et al. Aloesin inhibits hyperpigmentation induced by UV radiation. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2002; 27(6):513-515. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2230.2002.01120.x.

[120] Kim JH, Yoon JY, Yang SY, et al. Tyrosinase inhibitory components from Aloe vera and their antiviral activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2017; 32(1):78-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/14756366.2016.1235568.

[121] Kang MH, Jang GY, Ji YJ, et al. Wongam,Antioxidant and anti-melanogenic activities of heat-treated licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra × G. uralensis) extract. Curr Issues Mol Biol. 2021; 43(2):1171-1187. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb43020083.

[122] Hong JH, Cao SW, Xiang SJ, et al. Glycyrrhiza flavonoids and its major component, licochalcone A, inhibit melanogenesis through MAPK/ERK pathway by activating ERK phosphorylation. J Dermatol Sci. 2018; 91(2):222-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2018.04.016.

[123] Fu Y, Hong S, Li D, et al. Novel chemical synthesis of ginkgolic acid (13:0) and evaluation of its tyrosinase inhibitory activity. J Agric Food Chem. 2013; 61(22):5347-5352. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf4012642.

[124] Ku B, Kim D, Choi EM. Anti-melanogenic effect of the aqueous ethanol extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf in B16F 10 cells. Toxicol Environ Health Sci. 2020; 12(3):287-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13530-020-00063-5.

[125] Shu P, Fei Y, Li J, et al. Two new phenylethanoid glycosides from Ginkgo biloba leaves and their tyrosinase inhibitory activities. Carbohydr Res. 2020; 494:108059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2020.108059.

[126] Kim MJ, Shin SY, Song NR, et al. Bioassay-guided characterization, antioxidant, anti-melanogenic and anti-photoaging activities of Pueraria thunbergiana L. leaf extracts in human epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells. Processes. 2022; 10(10):2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102156.

[127] Wagle A, Seong SH, Jung HA, et al. Identifying an isoflavone from the root of Pueraria lobata as a potent tyrosinase inhibitor. Food Chem. 2019; 276:383-389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.10.008.

[128] Han E, Chang B, Kim D, et al. Melanogenesis inhibitory effect of aerial part of Pueraria thunbergiana in vitro and in vivo. Arch Dermatol Res. 2015; 307:57-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-014-1489-z.

[129] Chaikul P, Kanlayavattanakul M, Somkumnerd J. et al. Phyllanthus emblica L. (amla) branch: a safe and effective ingredient against skin aging. J Tradit Complement Med. 2021; 11(5):390-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2021.02.004.

[130] Sripanidkulchai B, Junlatat J. Bioactivities of alcohol based extracts of Phyllanthus emblica branches: antioxidation, antimelanogenesis and anti-inflammation. J Nat Med. 2014; 68:615-622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-014-0824-1.

[131] Lv J, Yang Y, Jia B, et al. The inhibitory effect of curcumin derivative J147 on melanogenesis and melanosome transport by facilitating ERK-mediated MITF degradation. Front Pharmacol. 2021; 12:783730. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.783730.

[132] Park S, Seok JK, Kwak JK, et al. Anti-melanogenic effects of resveratryl triglycolate, a novel hybrid compound derived by esterification of resveratrol with glycolic acid. Arch Dermatol Res. 2016; 308(5):325-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-016-1644-9.

[133] Hu M, Chen C, Liu J, et al. The melanogenic effects and underlying mechanism of paeoniflorin in human melanocytes and vitiligo mice. Fitoterapia. 2020; 140:104416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104416.

[134] Tang H, Yang L, Wu L, et al. Kaempferol, the melanogenic component of Sanguisorba officinalis, enhances dendricity and melanosome maturation/transport in melanocytes. J Pharmacol Sci. 2021; 147(4):348-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphs.2021.08.009.

[135] Tsang TF, Chan B, Tai WCS, et al. Gynostemma pentaphyllum saponins induce melanogenesis and activate cAMP/PKA and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways. Phytomedicine. 2019; 60:153008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153008.

[136] Jung GD, Yang JY, Song ES, et al. Stimulation of melanogenesis by glycyrrhizin in B16 melanoma cells. Exp Mol Med. 2001; 33(3):131-135. https://doi.org/10.1038/emm.2001.23.

[137] Kim S, Chung JH. Berberine prevents UV-induced MMP-1 and reduction of type I procollagen expression in human dermal fibroblasts. Phytomedicine. 2008; 15(9):749-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2007.11.004.

[138] Hong MJ, Ko EB, Park SK, et al. Inhibitory effect of Astragalus membranaceus root on matrix metalloproteinase-1 collagenase expression and procollagen destruction in ultraviolet B-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts by suppressing nuclear factor kappa-B activity. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013; 65(1):142-148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-7158.2012.01570.x.

[139] Li Q, Wang D, Bai D, et al. Photoprotective effect of Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharide on UVA-induced damage in HaCaT cells. PLoS One. 2020; 15(7):e0235515. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235515.

[140] Rodrigues D, Viotto AC, Checchia R, et al. Mechanism of Aloe vera extract protection against UVA: shelter of lysosomal membrane avoids photodamage. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2016; 15(3):334-350. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5pp00409h.

[141] Misawa E, Tanaka M, Saito M, et al. Protective effects of Aloe sterols against UVB-induced photoaging in hairless mice. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 2017; 33(2):101-111. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12286.

[142] Kang MC, Kim SY, Kim YT, et al. In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities of polysaccharide purified from Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis) gel. Carbohydr Polym. 2014; 99:365-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.07.091.

[143] Alnuqaydan AM, Lenehan CE, Hughes RR, et al. Extracts from Calendula officinalis offer in vitro protection against H₂O₂ induced oxidative stress cell killing of human skin cells. Phytother Res. 2015; 29(1):120-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5236.

[144] Fonseca YM, Catini CD, Vicentini FT, et al. Protective effect of Calendula officinalis extract against UVB-induced oxidative stress in skin: evaluation of reduced glutathione levels and matrix metalloproteinase secretion. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010; 127(3):596-601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.019.

[145] Ko J, Rho T, Yoon KD. Kaempferol tri- and tetrasaccharides from Camellia japonica seed cake and their inhibitory activities against matrix metalloproteinase-1 secretion using human dermal fibroblasts. Carbohydr Res. 2020; 495:108101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2020.108101.

[146] Klomsakul P, Aiumsubtub A, Chalopagorn P. Evaluation of antioxidant activities and tyrosinase inhibitory effects of Ginkgo biloba tea extract. Sci World J. 2022; 2022:4806889. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4806889.

[147] Lee S, Yu JS, Phung HM, et al. Potential anti-skin aging effect of (-)-catechin isolated from the root bark of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica in tumor necrosis factor-α-stimulated normal human dermal fibroblasts. Antioxidants. 2020; 9(10):981. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9100981.

[148] Lee S, Reddy CK, Ryu JJ, et al. Solid-state fermentation with Aspergillus cristatus enhances the protopanaxadiol- and protopanaxatriol-associated skin anti-aging activity of Panax notoginseng. Front Microbiol. 2021; 12:602135. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.602135.

[149] Zhu Y, Yu X, Ge Q, et al. Antioxidant and anti-aging activities of polysaccharides from Cordyceps cicadae. Int J Biol Macromol. 2020; 157:394-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.163.

[150] Xie W, Gu D, Li J, et al. Effects and action mechanisms of berberine and Rhizoma coptidis on gut microbes and obesity in high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6J mice. PLoS One. 2011; 6(9):e24520. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024520.

[151] Choo JJ. Green tea reduces body fat accretion caused by high-fat diet in rats through β-adrenoceptor activation of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. J Nutr Biochem. 2003; 14(11):671-676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2003.08.005.

[152] Paraíso AF, Sousa JN, Andrade JMO, et al. Oral gallic acid improves metabolic profile by modulating SIRT1 expression in obese mice brown adipose tissue: a molecular and bioinformatic approach. Life Sci. 2019; 237:116914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116914.

[153] Kim HJ, Lee MJ, Jang JY, et al. Allium hookeri root extract inhibits adipogenesis by promoting lipolysis in high fat diet-induced obese mice. Nutrients. 2019; 11(10):2262. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11102262.

[154] Sung YY, Son E, Im G, et al. Herbal combination of Phyllostachys pubescens and Scutellaria baicalensis inhibits adipogenesis and promotes browning via AMPK activation in 3T3-L 1 adipocytes. Plants. 2020; 9(11):1422. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9111422.

[155] Liu X, Gao YP, Shen ZX, et al. Study on the experimental verification and regulatory mechanism of Rougui-Ganjiang herb-pair for the actions of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue based on network pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2021; 279:114378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114378.