Environmental impact of China's semi-solid-state batteries: a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment

Abstract

Rising demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is driven by booming new energy vehicles and grid storage, yet conventional liquid LIBs face thermal runaway risks and high embodied carbon. As a transitional technology between liquid LIBs and all-solid-state batteries, semi-solid-state batteries (SSSBs) deliver outstanding electrochemical performance and match existing production lines, gaining wide industrial and academic attention. Following ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, this study applies life cycle assessment with the China Local Life Cycle Database to evaluate nine environmental indicators of SSSBs within a cradle-to-gate (CTG) scope, including global warming potential, primary energy demand, and abiotic depletion potential. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are conducted to validate result reliability. Quantitative outcomes demonstrate that the aggregate CTG carbon footprint of SSSBs totals 133.64 kg CO₂ eq, among which NCM811 cathode materials dominate emissions at a contribution ratio of 81.1%. Raw material logistics generate 0.136 kg CO₂ eq of carbon loads, with cathode transport accounting for 59.2% of logistics emissions. Over 98% of manufacturing greenhouse gas emissions stem from electricity consumption, and cell formation and dry rooms are the most energy-intensive units. Hazardous waste transportation dominates emissions in the waste treatment stage. This work fills the gap of localized industrial life cycle inventories for Chinese SSSBs, identifies key carbon hotspots, and provides low-carbon strategies and theoretical support for production optimization, industrial policy formulation, and national clean energy transition.

Keywords

Life cycle assessment / semi-solid-state battery / cradle-to-gate / environmental impact

References

[1] World Economic Forum. A vision for a sustainable battery value chain in 2030. Unlocking the full potential to power sustainable development and climate change mitigation Geneva. 2019. Available from: https://cn.weforum.org/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026]

[2] Arshad F,Manurkar N.Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries: a critical review.Resour Conserv Recycl2022;180:106164

[3] Šimaitis J,Vagg C,Sacchi R.Battery electric vehicles show the lowest carbon footprints among passenger cars across 1.5-3.0 °C energy decarbonisation pathways.Commun Earth Environ2025;6:476 PMCID:PMC12176635

[4] Mandade P,Baumann M.Environmental life cycle assessment of emerging solid-state batteries: a review.Chem Eng J Adv2023;13:100439

[5] Seshadri N,Fotouhi A.Experimental evaluation of thermal barrier materials used in battery electric vehicles.Automot Innov2026;9:401-20

[6] Lian Y,Song G,He B.Investigation on high-temperature-uniformity direct cooling performance of battery pack with large-format blade battery.Automot Innov2025;8:769-85

[7] Yang H,Zhang Z.Performance comparison of semi-solid-state batteries with liquid electrolyte batteries: a perspective from vehicle operation.Appl Energy2025;402:126899

[8] Xu C,Chen J.Safety assessment of LiNi_0.9Mn_0.05Co_0.05O₂ and high-voltage LiNi_0.6Mn_0.2Co_0.2O₂ cathode lithium-ion batteries with similar energy density.Automot Innov2026;422

[9] EVTank. White paper on the development of China's solid-state battery industry (2025) Beijing. 2025 Available from: http://www.evtank.cn/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026]

[10] China MoIaITotPsRo. Solid-state battery for electric vehicle—Part 1: terms and classification: standardization administration of the people's republic of China. 2026. Available from: https://wap.miit.gov.cn/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026]

[11] Zhan W,Yu Y.Life cycle carbon footprint of battery electric bus: coupling effects of mileage, energy mix and recycling processes.Carbon Footprints2025;4:19

[12] Chen Q,Zhang Y.Environmental impacts and supply risks for LiFePO₄ - LiCo_xNi_yMn_1-x-yO₂ hybrid battery pack in China.Process Saf Environ Prot2025;198:107115

[13] Wang L,Xu F.3D-printed honeycomb lithium-silicon alloy anodes for stabilized interface in sulfide all-solid-state batteries.eTransportation2025;26:100476

[14] Pei L,Dong J.High-performance solid-state sodium-ion batteries for lightweight electric vehicles: a closed-loop feedback-optimized composite electrolyte design.eTransportation2025;25:100439

[15] Wu Y,Zhang Q.Industrialization challenges for sulfide-based all solid state battery.eTransportation2024;22:100371

[16] Li G,Zhang X.Modeling of an all-solid-state battery with a composite positive electrode.eTransportation2024;20:100315

[17] Zhang N,Liu G.Solid electrolyte membranes for all-solid-state rechargeable batteries.eTransportation2024;20:100319

[18] Gries A,Langer F.Evaluation of various solvents for the wet-chemical synthesis of β-Li₃PS₄ under energy and environmental aspects.ACS Appl Energy Mater2024;7:5138-48

[19] Xu J,Guo W.Comparative LCA of energy and environmental impacts in sulfide-based all-solid-state battery manufacturing: wet vs. dry processes.J Energy Storage2026;150:120406

[20] Barke A,Steckermeier D.Green batteries for clean skies: sustainability assessment of lithium-sulfur all-solid-state batteries for electric aircraft.J Ind Ecol2022;27:795-810

[21] Popien J,Barke A.Comparative sustainability assessment of lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur, and all-solid-state traction batteries.Int J Life Cycle Assess2023;28:462-77

[22] Wang Z,Zhao S,An C.Toward a sustainable future: a holistic environmental, social, and economic assessment of industrial recycling for all-solid-state batteries with oxide-based electrolytes.Environ Sci Technol2025;59:21957-66

[23] Troy S,Reppert T.Life cycle assessment and resource analysis of all-solid-state batteries.Appl Energy2016;169:757-67

[24] Zhang S,Valvo M,Nordberg Å.Future climate impact of all-solid-state batteries.J Clean Prod2025;525:146607

[25] Zhang J,Gu Y.Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries for sustainable design and manufacturing.Int J Life Cycle Assess2022;27:227-37

[26] Qian G,Guo P.Non-destructive and adaptive negative electrode impedance estimation of lithium-ion batteries using ensemble learning.Appl Energy2026;402:127017

[27] Moon Y,Nguyen MH,Song WJ.Harnessing native Li₂CO₃ layers on Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO) for high-performance tri-layer composite electrolytes in semi-solid-state batteries.Small2025;21:e09544

[28] Wang WW,Xu XT,Zhen HS.Building a novel electromechanical-thermal model for semi-solid-state batteries.Energies2025;18:844

[29] Li H,Liu D,Hu Q.Electro-thermal coupling modeling and heat generation decoupling analysis of semi-solid-state lithium-ion battery.Electrochim Acta2025;512:145455

[30] Dilger N,Kiesewetter A.Definition and reference framework for life cycle technologies in life cycle engineering - a case study on all solid state traction batteries.Proc CIRP2021;98:217-22

[31] Falcone M,Rossi C.Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery pack unit made of cylindrical cells.Batteries2022;8:76

[32] Longo S,Cellura M.Life cycle assessment of storage systems: the case study of a sodium/nickel chloride battery.J Clean Prod2014;85:337-46

[33] Verma S,Verma P.Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles in comparison to combustion engine vehicles: a review.Mater Today Proc2022;49:217-22

[34] Dai Q,Gaines L.Life cycle analysis of lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications.Batteries2019;5:48

[35] Degen F,Bendig D.Energy consumption of current and future production of lithium-ion and post lithium-ion battery cells.Nat Energy2023;8:1284-95

[36] Lai X,Chen Q.Comprehensive assessment of carbon emissions and environmental impacts of sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries at the manufacturing stage.J Clean Prod2023;423:138674

[37] Dou H.The greenhouse gas emissions reduction co-benefit of end-of-life electric vehicle battery treatment strategies.Carbon Footprints2023;2:2

[38] Kallitsis E,Kelsall GH.Life cycle assessment of recycling options for automotive Li-ion battery packs.J Clean Prod2022;371:133636

[39] Lai X,Chen Q.Investigating greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts from the production of lithium-ion batteries in China.J Clean Prod2022;372:133756

[40] Degen F,Kampker A.Comparative life cycle assessment of lithium-ion, sodium-ion, and solid-state battery cells for electric vehicles.J Ind Ecol2024;29:113-28

[41] Gentilucci G,Spessa E.Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of diesel oil and zero-emission trucks: systematic review of status and perspectives.Transp Res Interdiscip Perspect2025;32:101563