Distributed photovoltaic adoption in rural Shandong, China: status, challenges, and influential factors

Abstract

Distributed photovoltaic systems (distributed PV) enable rural households to replace traditional energy sources, reduce their household carbon footprint, and generate additional income. Due to the multiple benefits, China increasingly prioritizes developing distributed PV in its rural areas. However, the overall status, primary challenges of distributed PV in rural China, and how regional social and economic factors contribute to adoption choices of distributed PV remain largely uninvestigated. Here, we aim to provide insights into the above issues and offer a basis for policy recommendations that can facilitate the adoption of distributed PV, drawing from Shandong Province’s experience. This study is based on a survey conducted in 2023, encompassing a total of 169 households across 36 villages in Shandong Province. Our results show that 43% of the households have embraced distributed PV with various system standards employed. We also find that rural households in Shandong Province encounter challenges engaging in distributed PV systems, such as inadequate policy support, significant heterogeneity of policy promotion among villages, a predominant emphasis on construction rather than management, and an extended payback period. We suggest that future attention should be paid to households that have not experienced extreme weather events and those that have not yet engaged in related low-carbon environmental activities. Local village officials should take the lead in spearheading policy promotion activities to enhance villagers’ awareness and enthusiasm. Besides, efforts should be directed towards guaranteeing the availability of high-quality distributed PV systems with consistent standards.

Keywords

Distributed photovoltaic system / rural households / face-to-face survey / policy implication / Shandong Province

References

[1] IPCC. Synthesis report of the IPCC sixth assessment report (AR6). Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_LongerReport.pdf [Last accessed on 18 Feb 2024].

[2] Creutzig F,Goldschmidt JC,Nemet G.The underestimated potential of solar energy to mitigate climate change.Nat Energy2017;2:17140

[3] Bogdanov D,Sadovskaia K.Radical transformation pathway towards sustainable electricity via evolutionary steps.Nat Commun2019;10:1077 PMCID:PMC6403340

[4] Hidayatno A,Wikananda Supartha IM,Rahman I.Investigating policies on improving household rooftop photovoltaics adoption in Indonesia.Renew Energy2020;156:731-42

[5] Goldstein B,Newell JP.The carbon footprint of household energy use in the United States.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA2020;117:19122-30 PMCID:PMC7431053

[6] Frondel M,Schmidt CM.Economic impacts from the promotion of renewable energy technologies: the German experience.Energy Policy2010;38:4048-56

[7] Dong J,Sun H,Li R.Clean distributed generation in China: policy options and international experience.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2016;57:753-64

[8] Carter E,Fu Y.Household transitions to clean energy in a multi-provincial cohort study in China.Nat Sustain2019;3:42-50 PMCID:PMC7615133

[9] Zhang W,Huang F,Zhou J.Forecasting the energy and economic benefits of photovoltaic technology in China’s rural areas.Sustainability2021;13:8408

[10] Huang F,Liu J,Li W.Exploring rural energy choice from the perspective of multi-dimensional capabilities: evidence from photovoltaic anti-poverty areas in rural China.J Clean Prod2021;283:124586

[11] Tao S,Du W.Quantifying the rural residential energy transition in China from 1992 to 2012 through a representative national survey.Nat Energy2018;3:567-73

[12] Zhang H,Qiu Y.Solar photovoltaic interventions have reduced rural poverty in China.Nat Commun2020;11:1969 PMCID:PMC7181783

[13] National Energy Administration. Operation status of photovoltaic power generation construction in 2022. Available from: http://www.nea.gov.cn/2023-02/17/c_1310698128.htm [Last accessed on 18 Feb 2024].

[14] Wu H,Li J.Uncertainty, time preference and households’ adoption of rooftop photovoltaic technology.Energy2023;276:127468

[15] Bauner C.Adoption of residential solar power under uncertainty: implications for renewable energy incentives.Energy Policy2015;86:27-35

[16] La Monaca S, Ryan L. Solar PV where the sun doesn’t shine: estimating the economic impacts of support schemes for residential PV with detailed net demand profiling.Energy Policy2017;108:731-41

[17] Zhang H,Zhou D,Shen D.Targeted poverty alleviation using photovoltaic power in China: identifying financial options through a dynamic game analysis.Resour Conserv Recycl2018;139:333-7

[18] Shuai J,Ding L,Leng Z.How should government and users share the investment costs and benefits of a solar PV power generation project in China?.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2019;104:86-94

[19] Jia X,Zou H.Assessing the effectiveness of China’s net-metering subsidies for household distributed photovoltaic systems.J Clean Prod2020;262:121161

[20] Li Y,Guo S,Song J.When my friends and relatives go solar, should I go solar too? - Evidence from rural Sichuan province, China.Renew Energy2023;203:753-62

[21] Chen C,Shuai J,Walzem A.Linking social-psychological factors with policy expectation: using local voices to understand solar PV poverty alleviation in Wuhan, China.Energy Policy2021;151:112160

[22] Li B,Wang J,Zhang L.Key factors affecting the adoption willingness, behavior, and willingness-behavior consistency of farmers regarding photovoltaic agriculture in China.Energy Policy2021;149:112101

[23] Chowdhury S,Islam A.Importance of policy for energy system transformation: diffusion of PV technology in Japan and Germany.Energy Policy2014;68:285-93

[24] He G.Where, when and how much solar is available? A provincial-scale solar resource assessment for China.Renew Energy2016;85:74-82

[25] Sommerfeld J,Mengersen K.Influence of demographic variables on uptake of domestic solar photovoltaic technology.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2017;67:315-23

[26] Kurata M,Ikemoto Y.Do determinants of adopting solar home systems differ between households and micro-enterprises? Evidence from rural Bangladesh.Renew Energy2018;129:309-16

[27] Bashiri A.The analysis of demographics, environmental and knowledge factors affecting prospective residential PV system adoption: a study in Tehran.Renew Sustain Energy Rev2018;81:3131-9

[28] Agir S,Senturk B.Farmers’ perspectives on challenges and opportunities of agrivoltaics in Turkiye: an institutional perspective.Renew Energy2023;212:35-49

[29] Kabir Z.The role of social impact assessment (SIA) in the development of a mine closure plan in regional Australia.J Env Assmt Pol Mgmt2021;23:2250015

[30] Wu Y,Tao Y,Liao Y.A critical barrier analysis framework to the development of rural distributed PV in China.Energy2022;245:123277

[31] Energy Administration of Shandong Province. Shandong has achieved significant results in promoting the large-scale development of distributed rooftop photovoltaics throughout the county. Available from: http://nyj.shandong.gov.cn/art/2022/12/8/art_59966_10295453.html [Last accessed on 8 Mar 2024].

[32] Odetunmibi OA,Oguntunde PE,Okagbue HI. An investigation of dynamic influence to doctors’ stress in government hospitals in nigeria using logistic regression approach. Available from: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62802998 [Last accessed on 18 Feb 2024]

[33] Loan LTT,Nomura H.Modeling home composting behavior toward sustainable municipal organic waste management at the source in developing countries.Resour Conserv Recycl2019;140:65-71

[34] Train K. Discrete choice methods with simulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009.

[35] Hwang T,Kim JT.Optimization of the building integrated photovoltaic system in office buildings - focus on the orientation, inclined angle and installed area.Energy Build2012;46:92-104

[36] Bahaj AS.Photovoltaic roofing: issues of design and integration into buildings.Renew Energy2003;28:2195-204

[37] Yadav P,Sarkodie SA.The prospects of decentralised solar energy home systems in rural communities: user experience, determinants, and impact of free solar power on the energy poverty cycle.Energy Strategy Rev2019;26:100424

[38] Li L,Liu X.Determinants of rural household clean energy adoption intention: evidence from 72 typical villages in ecologically fragile regions of western China.J Clean Prod2022;347:131296

[39] Song Y,Ye B.Linking carbon market and electricity market for promoting the grid parity of photovoltaic electricity in China.Energy2020;211:118924

[40] van der Linden S. The social-psychological determinants of climate change risk perceptions: towards a comprehensive model.J Environ Psychol2015;41:112-24

[41] Hoffmann R,Peisker J.Climate change experiences raise environmental concerns and promote green voting.Nat Clim Chang2022;12:148-55

[42] Walker G,Hunter S,Evans B.Trust and community: exploring the meanings, contexts and dynamics of community renewable energy.Energy Policy2010;38:2655-63

[43] Kastner I.Examining the decision-making processes behind household energy investments: a review.Energy Res Soc Sci2015;10:72-89.

[44] Zhao Y,Wang C.Do the photovoltaic poverty alleviation programs alleviate local energy poverty? - Empirical evidence of 9 counties in rural China.Energy2023;263:125973

[45] Teng Y,Chen X.An analysis of the behavioral decisions of governments, village collectives, and farmers under rural waste sorting.Environ Impact Assess Rev2022;95:106780

[46] Roesler T.Creating niches - the role of policy for the implementation of bioenergy village cooperatives in Germany.Energy Policy2019;124:95-101

[47] Hansen M, Liu Z. Air pollution and grassroots echoes of “ecological civilization” in rural China.China Q2018;234:320-39

[48] He G.Do college graduates serving as village officials help rural China?.Am Econ J Appl Econ2017;9:186-215

[49] Zhang W,Chen M.Consumer perception and use intention for household distributed photovoltaic systems.Sustain Energy Technol Assess2022;51:101895