The greenhouse gas emissions reduction co-benefit of end-of-life electric vehicle battery treatment strategies

Abstract

Vehicle electrification stands as a pivotal catalyst for effecting a low-carbon transition within the transportation sector. End-of-life (EoL) battery treatment, which is mainly aimed at facilitating material recycling, provides considerable co-benefit in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study assesses the life-cycle GHG emissions from battery production, and examines the impact of three EoL battery treatment strategies: second use, regeneration, and recycling. Prospective scenarios of GHG emissions from electric vehicle battery production in China are further provided. The results show that under the Business as Usual (BAU) scenario, GHG emissions peak at 36 million tons in 2030, with 18 million tons for LFP and 18 million tons for NCM, and decrease to 11 million tons in 2060, with 4 million tons for LFP and 7 million tons for NCM. GHG emissions have more reduction potential as the collection rate increases and the proportion of different strategies applied changes. In a scenario with improved collection rates, GHG emissions would be reduced by 21% in 2060 compared to BAU. In a prioritized regeneration scenario, GHG emissions can be reduced by 32% in 2060, with 64% of lithium resources being supplied by regenerated batteries. In a prioritized second use scenario, GHG emissions can be reduced by 104% in 2060, which involves replacing 27 kilotons of lithium input and mitigating 13 million tons of GHG emissions related to the energy storage system. In light of these findings, we advocate for policy recommendations aimed at fostering the advancement of EoL battery treatment technologies and expediting the transformation of battery manufacturing processes towards carbon neutrality.

Keywords

Vehicle power battery / life cycle assessment / recycling technology / greenhouse gas emission / metal material

References

[1] China Association of Automotive Manufacturers. A brief analysis of the production and sales of the automobile industry in March 2023. Available from: http://www.caam.org.cn/chn/4/cate_31/con_5235761.html [Last accessed on 30 Nov 2023]

[2] Woo SH,Lee SB.Comparison of total PM emissions emitted from electric and internal combustion engine vehicles: an experimental analysis.Sci Total Environ2022;842:156961

[3] Ye Y,Zhang J.Driving cycle electrification and comparison.Transport Res D Transp Environ2023;123:103900

[4] Hoekstra A.The underestimated potential of battery electric vehicles to reduce emissions.Joule2019;3:1412-4

[5] Yang L,Yang B,Malima G.Life cycle environmental assessment of electric and internal combustion engine vehicles in China.J Clean Prod2021;285:124899

[6] Sun S,He W,Zhu H.Management status of waste lithium-ion batteries in China and a complete closed-circuit recycling process.Sci Total Environ2021;776:145913

[7] Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of China. Interim measures for the administration of recycling and utilization of power batteries for new energy vehicles. Available from: https://www.miit.gov.cn/zwgk/zcwj/wjfb/zh/art/2020/art_459b0eb972964f68930bb39be9e92688.html [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[8] Filomeno G.Economic, technical and environmental aspects of recycling lithium batteries: a literature review.Glob J Res Eng2020;20:290401

[9] Jones B,Nguyen-Tien V.The EV revolution: the road ahead for critical raw materials demand.Appl Energy2020;280:115072 PMCID:PMC7545311

[10] Hu S,Jiang X,Wang P.Forecast and suggestions on the demand of lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese resources in China’s new energy automobile industry.IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci2021;769:042018

[11] Akcil A,Panda S.COVID-19 disruptions to tech-metals supply are a wake-up call.Nature2020;587:365-7

[12] Liu SQ,Li X,Chung SH.How is China’s energy security affected by exogenous shocks? Evidence of China-US trade dispute and COVID-19 pandemic..Discov Energy2021;1:2 PMCID:PMC8316885

[13] Sun X,Hartmann P,Zhao F.Supply risks of lithium-ion battery materials: an entire supply chain estimation.Mater Today Energy2019;14:100347

[14] Wang W.An overview of recycling and treatment of spent LiFePO₄ batteries in China.Resour Conserv Recy2017;127:233-43

[15] Costa C,Gonçalves R,Del Campo FJ.Recycling and environmental issues of lithium-ion batteries: advances, challenges and opportunities.Energy Stor Mater2021;37:433-65

[16] Zubi G,Carvalho M.The lithium-ion battery: state of the art and future perspectives.Renew Sustain Energ Rev2018;89:292-308

[17] Ahmadi L,Folwe M,Fraser RA.Environmental feasibility of re-use of electric vehicle batteries.Sustain Energy Technol Assess2014;6:64-74

[18] Podias A,Di Persio F.Sustainability assessment of second use applications of automotive batteries: ageing of Li-ion battery cells in automotive and grid-scale applications.World Electr Veh J2018;9:24

[19] Harper G,Kendrick E.Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles.Nature2019;575:75-86

[20] Reinhardt R,Gassó-Domingo S.Towards sustainable business models for electric vehicle battery second use: a critical review.J Environ Manag2019;245:432-46

[21] Xu P,Gao H.Efficient direct recycling of lithium-ion battery cathodes by targeted healing.Joule2020;4:2609-26

[22] Innovation News Network. An energy-efficient method for recycling lithium batteries. Available from: https://www.innovationnewsnetwork.com/an-energy-efficient-method-for-recycling-lithium-batteries/11161/ [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[23] Wang T,Bai Y,Belharouak I.Direct recycling of spent NCM cathodes through ionothermal lithiation.Adv Energy Mater2020;10:2001204

[24] Natkunarajah N,Scharf P.Scenarios for the return of lithium-ion batteries out of electric cars for recycling.Procedia CIRP2015;29:740-5

[25] Reinhart L,Woeste R.Pyrometallurgical recycling of different lithium-ion battery cell systems: economic and technical analysis.J Clean Prod2023;416:137834

[26] Wang MM,Zhang FS.Recycling of spent lithium-ion battery with polyvinyl chloride by mechanochemical process.Waste Manag2017;67:232-9

[27] Lv W,Cao H,Zhang Y.A critical review and analysis on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2018;6:1504-21

[28] Shin SM,Sohn JS,Kim YH.Development of a metal recovery process from Li-ion battery wastes.Hydrometallurgy2005;79:172-81

[29] Yao Y,Zhao Z,Fan Y.Hydrometallurgical processes for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: a critical review.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2018;6:13611-27

[30] Kumar J,Park J.Recent progress in sustainable recycling of LiFePO₄-type lithium-ion batteries: strategies for highly selective lithium recovery.Chem Eng J2022;431:133993

[31] Chang D,Shi P.Selective recovery of lithium and efficient leaching of transition metals from spent LiNi_xCo_yMn_zO₂ batteries based on a synergistic roasting process.Chem Eng J2022;449:137752

[32] Linnaeus University. New method for recycling lithium-ion batteries reduces energy needs and environmental harm. Available from: https://lnu.se/en/meet-linnaeus-university/current/news/2023/new-method-for-recycling-lithium-ion-batteries/ [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[33] Xiao X,Ma Y.Ultrasound-assisted extraction of metals from lithium-ion batteries using natural organic acids.Green Chem2021;23:8519-32

[34] ISO 14040: 2006. Environmental management - life cycle assessment -principles and framework. International Standards Organization, Geneva 2006. Available from: https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[35] Li W,Yin J.Life cycle assessment of end-of-life vehicle recycling processes in China - take corolla taxis for example.J Clean Prod2016;117:176-87

[36] Yu A,Chen W,Peng L.Life cycle environmental impacts and carbon emissions: a case study of electric and gasoline vehicles in China.Trans Res D Trans Environ2018;65:409-20

[37] Zhao S.Comparative life-cycle assessment of Li-ion batteries through process-based and integrated hybrid approaches.ACS Sustain Chem Eng2019;7:5082-94

[38] Sullivan JL,Wang MQ.Model for the part manufacturing and vehicle assembly component of the vehicle life cycle inventory.J Ind Ecol2013;17:143-53

[39] 2023-2029 Global and China electric vehicle battery recycling market panorama survey and strategic consulting report. Available from: https://www.gonyn.com/report/1372323.html [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[40] Dai Q,Kelly J. Update of life cycle analysis of lithium-ion batteries in the GREET model. Available from: https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-Li_battery_update_2017 [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[41] Dai Q,Dunn J. Update of bill-of-materials and cathode materials production for lithium-ion batteries in the GREET^® model. Available from: https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-update_bom_cm

[42] Dai Q. Updates for battery recycling and materials in GREET 2019. Available from: https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-battery_recycling_materials_2019

[43] Hebei Kui Xing New Energy Technology Co., Ltd. supporting CHINA TOWER new energy gradient battery utilization and power backup storage annual production of 120,000 sets of projects. Available from: http://www.doc88.com/p-01847331761007.html [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]

[44] Hao H,Tate JE.Impact of transport electrification on critical metal sustainability with a focus on the heavy-duty segment.Nat Commun2019;10:5398 PMCID:PMC6881386

[45] Hao H,Sarkis J.Carbon footprint of global passenger cars: scenarios through 2050.Energy2016;101:121-31

[46] Hao H,Zhao F,Hang W.Scenario analysis of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from China's passenger vehicles.Energy2015;91:151-9

[47] IPCC. 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. Available from: https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2023]