Sustainable Carbon-Based Catalyst Materials Derived From Lignocellulosic Biomass for Energy Storage and Conversion: Atomic Modulation and Properties Improvement

Abstract

Carbon electrocatalyst materials based on lignocellulosic biomass with multi-components, various dimensions, high carbon content, and hierarchical morphology structures have gained great popularity in electrocatalytic applications recently. Due to the catalytic deficiency of neutral carbon atoms, the usage of single lignocellulosic-based carbon materials in electrocatalysis involving energy storage and conversion presents unsatisfactory applicability. However, atomic-level modulation of lignocellulose-based carbon materials can optimize the electronic structures, charge separation, transfer processes, and so forth, which results in substantially enhanced electrocatalytic performance of carbon-based catalysts. This paper reviews the recent advances in the rational design of lignocellulosic-based carbon materials as electrocatalysts from an atomic-level perspective, such as self/external heteroatom doping and metal modification. Then, through systematic discussion of the design principles and reaction mechanisms of the catalysts, the applications of the prepared lignocellulosic-based catalysts in rechargeable batteries and electrocatalysis are reviewed. Finally, the challenges in improving the catalytic performance of lignocellulosic-based carbon materials as electrocatalysts and the prospects in diverse applications are reviewed. This review contributes to the synthesis strategy of lignocellulose-based carbon electrocatalysts via atomic-level modulation, which in turn promotes the lignocellulose valorization for energy storage and conversion.

Keywords

atomic modulation / carbon materials / electrocatalysis / lignocellulosic biomass / rechargeable batteries

References

[1] H. Luo, J. Barrio, N. Sunny, et al., “Progress and Perspectives in Photo- and Electrochemical-Oxidation of Biomass for Sustainable Chemicals and Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 43 (2021): 2101180.

[2] C. Liu, P. Luan, Q. Li, et al., “Biopolymers Derived From Trees as Sustainable Multifunctional Materials: A Review,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 28 (2021): 2001654.

[3] B. Pickering, F. Lombardi, and S. Pfenninger, “Diversity of Options to Eliminate Fossil Fuels and Reach Carbon Neutrality Across the Entire European Energy System,” Joule 6, no. 6 (2022): 1253-1276.

[4] J. Lv, J. Xie, A. G. A. Mohamed, X. Zhang, and Y. Wang, “Photoelectrochemical Energy Storage Materials: Design Principles and Functional Devices Towards Direct Solar to Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Chemical Society Reviews 51, no. 4 (2022): 1511-1528.

[5] H. Wang, Y. Yang, and L. Guo, “Nature-Inspired Electrochemical Energy-Storage Materials and Devices,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 5 (2017): 1601709.

[6] Q. Wei, F. Xiong, S. Tan, et al., “Porous One-Dimensional Nanomaterials: Design, Fabrication and Applications in Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 20 (2017): 1602300.

[7] L. F. Chen, Y. Feng, H. W. Liang, Z. Y. Wu, and S. H. Yu, “Macroscopic-Scale Three-Dimensional Carbon Nanofiber Architectures for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 23 (2017): 1700826.

[8] F. Wu, J. Maier, and Y. Yu, “Guidelines and Trends for Next-Generation Rechargeable Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Society Reviews 49, no. 5 (2020): 1569-1614.

[9] D. Ponnalagar, D. R. Hang, C. T. Liang, and M. M. C. Chou, “Recent Advances and Future Prospects of Low-Dimensional Mo₂C Mxene-Based Electrode for Flexible Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices,” Progress in Materials Science 145 (2024): 101308.

[10] Y. Zhang, J. Wu, B. Guo, et al., “Recent Advances of Transition-Metal Metaphosphates for Efficient Electrocatalytic Water Splitting,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 12 (2023): e375.

[11] L. Jiang, X. Luo, and D. W. Wang, “A Review on System and Materials for Aqueous Flexible Metal-Air Batteries,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 3 (2023): e284.

[12] X. Gao, S. Zhang, P. Wang, M. Jaroniec, Y. Zheng, and S. Z. Qiao, “Urea Catalytic Oxidation for Energy and Environmental Applications,” Chemical Society Reviews 53, no. 3 (2024): 1552-1591.

[13] X. Cui, M. Wu, X. Liu, et al., “Engineering Organic Polymers as Emerging Sustainable Materials for Powerful Electrocatalysts,” Chemical Society Reviews 53, no. 3 (2024): 1447-1494.

[14] L. Quan, H. Jiang, G. Mei, Y. Sun, and B. You, “Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Overall and Hybrid Water Splitting,” Chemical Reviews 124, no. 7 (2024): 3694-3812.

[15] Z. Jia, Y. Yuan, Y. Zhang, et al., “Optimizing 3 D Spin Polarization of CoOOH by in Situ Mo Doping for Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 1 (2024): e418.

[16] Q. Fan, J. Su, T. Sun, et al., “Advances of the Functionalized Carbon Nitrides for Electrocatalysis,” Carbon Energy 4, no. 2 (2022): 211-236.

[17] S. Lv, C. Huang, G. Li, and L. Yang, “Unveiling the Underlying Mechanism of Transition Metal Atoms Anchored Square Tetracyanoquinodimethane Monolayers as Electrocatalysts for N₂ Fixation,” Energy and Environmental Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 533-542.

[18] A. R. Woldu, Z. Huang, P. Zhao, L. Hu, and D. Astruc, “Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction (CO₂RR) to Multi-Carbon Products over Copper-Based Catalysts,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 454 (2022): 214340.

[19] Y. Li, Z. Dong, and L. Jiao, “Multifunctional Transition Metal-Based Phosphides in Energy-Related Electrocatalysis,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 11 (2020): 1902104.

[20] D. Zhu, M. Qiao, J. Liu, T. Tao, and C. Guo, “Engineering Pristine 2D Metal-Organic Framework Nanosheets for Electrocatalysis,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 17 (2020): 8143-8170.

[21] K. Liu, W. Liu, W. Li, et al., “Strong and Highly Conductive Cellulose Nanofibril/Silver Nanowires Nanopaper for High Performance Electromagnetic Interference Shielding,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 1078-1089.

[22] Y. Wang, T. Xu, K. Liu, M. Zhang, X. Cai, and C. Si, “Biomass-Based Materials for Advanced Supercapacitor: Principles, Progress, and Perspectives,” Aggregate 5, no. 1 (2023): e428.

[23] K. Liu, H. Du, T. Zheng, et al., “Recent Advances in Cellulose and Its Derivatives for Oilfield Applications,” Carbohydrate Polymers 259 (2021): 117740.

[24] Y. Duan, K. Liu, J. Qi, et al., “Engineering Lignocellulose-Based Composites for Advanced Structural Materials,” Industrial Crops and Products 205 (2023): 117562.

[25] K. Liu, Y. Wang, W. Liu, et al., “Bacterial Cellulose/Chitosan Composite Materials for Biomedical Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 494 (2024): 153014.

[26] Z. Ding, Z. Tian, X. Ji, H. Dai, and C. Si, “Bio-Inspired Catalytic One-Step Prepared R-Siloxane Cellulose Composite Membranes With Highly Efficient Oil Separation,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 3 (2022): 2138-2153.

[27] W. Liu, K. Liu, H. Du, et al., “Cellulose Nanopaper: Fabrication, Functionalization, and Applications,” Nano-Micro Letters 14, no. 1 (2022): 104.

[28] Y. Han, Y. Wang, B. Zhao, et al., “Carbon Dots: Building a Robust Optical Shield for Wood Preservation,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 1 (2023): 39.

[29] F. Huang, Z. Tian, H. Ma, et al., “Combined Alkali Impregnation and Poly Dimethyl Diallyl Ammonium Chloride-Assisted Cellulase Absorption for High-Efficiency Pretreatment of Wheat Straw,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 6 (2023): 230.

[30] C. L. Si, J. K. Kim, Y. S. Bae, and S. M. Li, “Phenolic Compounds in the Leaves of Populus Ussuriensis and Their Antioxidant Activities,” Planta Medica 75, no. 10 (2009): 1165-1167.

[31] L. Zhu, H. Yang, T. Xu, F. Shen, and C. Si, “Precision-Engineered Construction of Proton-Conducting Metal-Organic Frameworks,” Nano-Micro Letters 17 (2025): 87.

[32] L. An, C. Si, G. Wang, W. Sui, and Z. Tao, “Enhancing the Solubility and Antioxidant Activity of High-Molecular-Weight Lignin by Moderate Depolymerization via in Situ Ethanol/Acid Catalysis,” Industrial Crops and Products 128 (2019): 177-185.

[33] L. Zhu, H. Yang, T. Xu, L. Wang, J. Lei, and C. Si, “Engineered Nanochannels in Mxene Heterogeneous Proton Exchange Membranes Mediated By Cellulose Nanofiber/Sodium Alginate Dual Crosslinked Networks,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2419334.

[34] J. Qi, M. Zhang, T. Xu, et al., “Nanocellulose/Metal-Organic Frameworks Composites for Advanced Energy Storage of Electrodes and Separators,” Chemical Engineering Journal 500 (2024): 157318.

[35] L. Hu, H. Du, C. Liu, et al., “Comparative Evaluation of the Efficient Conversion of Corn Husk Filament and Corn Husk Powder to Valuable Materials via a Sustainable and Clean Biorefinery Process,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 7, no. 1 (2019): 1327-1336.

[36] S. Chen, G. Wang, W. Sui, A. M. Parvez, and C. Si, “Synthesis of Lignin-Functionalized Phenolic Nanosphere Supported Ag Nanoparticles With Excellent Dispersion Stability and Catalytic Performance,” Green Chemistry 22, no. 9 (2020): 2879-2888.

[37] X. Wang, T. Xu, H. Zhang, et al., “Preparation of Carboxylic Cellulose Nanofibrils via FeCl₃-Catalyzed Maleic Acid Hydrolysis and Application for Self-Supporting Electrode,” Chemical Engineering Journal 502 (2024): 157890.

[38] H. Du, M. Parit, K. Liu, et al., “Engineering Cellulose Nanopaper With Water Resistant, Antibacterial, and Improved Barrier Properties By Impregnation of Chitosan and the Followed Halogenation,” Carbohydrate Polymers 270 (2021): 118372.

[39] X. Li, R. Xu, J. Yang, et al., “Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and Levulinic Acid From Lignocellulosic Biomass and Catalytic Upgradation,” Industrial Crops and Products 130 (2019): 184-197.

[40] R. Xu, K. Liu, H. Du, et al., “Falling Leaves Return to Their Roots: A Review on the Preparation of γ-Valerolactone From Lignocellulose and Its Application in the Conversion of Lignocellulose,” Chemsuschem 13, no. 24 (2020): 6461-6476.

[41] W. Li, L. Zhu, Y. Xu, G. Wang, T. Xu, and C. Si, “Lignocellulose-Mediated Functionalization of Liquid Metals Toward the Frontiers of Multifunctional Materials,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2415761.

[42] K. Liu, M. Zhang, K. Zhou, et al., “Multifunctional Nanocellulose-Based Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Composites: Design, Functionality, and Future Prospects,” Industrial Crops and Products 210 (2024): 118148.

[43] M. Zhang, H. Du, K. Liu, et al., “Fabrication and Applications of Cellulose-Based Nanogenerators,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 4, no. 4 (2021): 865-884.

[44] K. Liu, H. Du, W. Liu, et al., “Strong, Flexible, and Highly Conductive Cellulose Nanofibril/PEDOT:PSS/Mxene Nanocomposite Films for Efficient Electromagnetic Interference Shielding,” Nanoscale 14, no. 40 (2022): 14902-14912.

[45] A. Etale, A. J. Onyianta, S. R. Turner, and S. J. Eichhorn, “Cellulose: A Review of Water Interactions, Applications in Composites, and Water Treatment,” Chemical Reviews 123, no. 5 (2023): 2016-2048.

[46] K. Liu, H. Du, W. Liu, et al., “Cellulose Nanomaterials for Oil Exploration Applications,” Polymer Reviews 62, no. 3 (2022): 585-625.

[47] H. Yang, L. Zhu, Y. Zhou, et al., “Engineering Modulation of Cellulose-Induced Metal-Organic Frameworks Assembly Behavior for Advanced Adsorption and Separation,” Chemical Engineering Journal 498 (2024): 155333.

[48] W. Liu, B. Pang, M. Zhang, et al., “Pickering Multiphase Materials Using Plant-Based Cellulosic Micro/Nanoparticles,” Aggregate 5 (2024): e486.

[49] H. Yang, H. Zheng, Y. Duan, et al., “Nanocellulose-Graphene Composites: Preparation and Applications in Flexible Electronics,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 253 (2023): 126903.

[50] W. Liu, H. Du, K. Liu, et al., “Sustainable Preparation of Cellulose Nanofibrils via Choline Chloride-Citric Acid Deep Eutectic Solvent Pretreatment Combined With High-Pressure Homogenization,” Carbohydrate Polymers 267 (2021): 118220.

[51] M. Zhang, Y. Wang, K. Liu, et al., “Strong, Conductive, and Freezing-Tolerant Polyacrylamide/PEDOT:PSS/Cellulose Nanofibrils Hydrogels for Wearable Strain Sensors,” Carbohydrate Polymers 305 (2023): 120567.

[52] W. Liu, K. Liu, Y. Wang, et al., “Sustainable Production of Cellulose Nanofibrils From Kraft Pulp for the Stabilization of Oil-In-Water Pickering Emulsions,” Industrial Crops and Products 185 (2022): 115123.

[53] Y. Duan, H. Yang, K. Liu, et al., “Cellulose Nanofibril Aerogels Reinforcing Polymethyl Methacrylate With High Optical Transparency,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 3 (2023): 123.

[54] H. Wang, M. Zhang, J. Hu, H. Du, T. Xu, and C. Si, “Sustainable Preparation of Surface Functionalized Cellulose Nanocrystals and Their Application for Pickering Emulsions,” Carbohydrate Polymers 297 (2022): 120062.

[55] H. Yang, L. Bai, Y. Duan, et al., “Upcycling Corn Straw Into Nanocelluloses via Enzyme-Assisted Homogenization: Application as Building Blocks for High-Performance Films,” Journal of Cleaner Production 390 (2023): 136215.

[56] A. Ibn Yaich, U. Edlund, and A. C. Albertsson, “Transfer of Biomatrix/Wood Cell Interactions to Hemicellulose-Based Materials to Control Water Interaction,” Chemical Reviews 117, no. 12 (2017): 8177-8207.

[57] K. Liu, H. Du, T. Zheng, et al., “Lignin-Containing Cellulose Nanomaterials: Preparation and Applications,” Green Chemistry 23, no. 24 (2021): 9723-9746.

[58] P. Figueiredo, K. Lintinen, J. T. Hirvonen, M. A. Kostiainen, and H. A. Santos, “Properties and Chemical Modifications of Lignin: Towards Lignin-Based Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications,” Progress in Materials Science 93 (2018): 233-269.

[59] W. Li, H. Sun, G. Wang, W. Sui, L. Dai, and C. Si, “Lignin as a Green and Multifunctional Alternative to Phenol for Resin Synthesis,” Green Chemistry 25 (2023): 2241-2261.

[60] H. Liu, T. Xu, K. Liu, et al., “Lignin-Based Electrodes for Energy Storage Application,” Industrial Crops and Products 165 (2021): 113425.

[61] W. Li, G. Wang, W. Zhang, J. Li, B. Zhang, and C. Si, “Lignin-Derived 0-3 Dimensional Carbon Materials: Synthesis, Configurations and Applications,” Industrial Crops and Products 204 (2023): 117342.

[62] Y. Guan, H. Liu, Y. Han, et al., “Unlocking the Photothermal Conversion Capacity of Lignin and Lignin-Derived Materials,” Chemical Engineering Journal 497 (2024): 154985.

[63] W. Li, W. Zhang, Y. Xu, et al., “Lignin-Derived Materials for Triboelectric Nanogenerators With Emphasis on Lignin Multifunctionality,” Nano Energy 128 (2024): 109912.

[64] H. Liu, Y. Guan, L. Yan, Y. Zheng, C. Si, and L. Dai, “The Development of Lignin Towards a Natural and Sustainable Platform for Optical Materials,” Green Chemistry 26, no. 17 (2024): 9281-9294.

[65] W. Li, T. Li, B. Deng, et al., “Fabrication of a Facile Self-Floating Lignin-Based Carbon Janus Evaporators for Efficient and Stable Solar Desalination,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 7, no. 2 (2024): 52.

[66] S. K. Tiwari, M. Bystrzejewski, A. De Adhikari, A. Huczko, and N. Wang, “Methods for the Conversion of Biomass Waste Into Value-Added Carbon Nanomaterials: Recent Progress and Applications,” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 92 (2022): 101023.

[67] W. Liu, H. Du, H. Liu, et al., “Highly Efficient and Sustainable Preparation of Carboxylic and Thermostable Cellulose Nanocrystals via FeCl₃-Catalyzed Innocuous Citric Acid Hydrolysis,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8, no. 44 (2020): 16691-16700.

[68] J. Ni, X. Huang, Y. Bai, et al., “Resistance to Aggregation-Caused Quenching: Chitosan-Based Solid Carbon Dots for White Light-Emitting Diode and 3D Printing,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 3 (2022): 1865-1875.

[69] S. Liu, H. Du, K. Liu, et al., “Flexible and Porous Co₃O₄-Carbon Nanofibers As Binder-Free Electrodes for Supercapacitors,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 4, no. 4 (2021): 1367-1383.

[70] W. Liu, Q. Lin, S. Chen, et al., “Microencapsulated Phase Change Material Through Cellulose Nanofibrils Stabilized Pickering Emulsion Templating,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 4 (2023): 149.

[71] Y. Duan, H. Yang, Y. Niu, et al., “Engineering Cellulose Nanofibril Aerogel for Reinforcing Polymethyl Methacrylate With Superior Mechanical Strength, High Transparency, and Improved Thermal Stability,” Composites Science and Technology 258 (2024): 110894.

[72] J. Qi, H. Wang, M. Zhang, et al., “Simultaneous Preparation of Lignin-Containing Cellulose Nanocrystals and Lignin Nanoparticles From Wood Sawdust by Mixed Organic Acid Hydrolysis,” Industrial Crops and Products 222 (2024): 119658.

[73] W. Liu, H. Du, M. Zhang, et al., “Bacterial Cellulose-Based Composite Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications: A Review,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8, no. 20 (2020): 7536-7562.

[74] L. Yan, H. Liu, Y. Yang, L. Dai, and C. Si, “Lignin-Derived Carbon Fibers: A Green Path From Biomass to Advanced Materials,” Carbon Energy 6 (2024): e662.

[75] X. Wang, Y. Zhang, J. Luo, et al., “Printability of Hybridized Composite From Maleic Acid-Treated Bacterial Cellulose With Gelatin for Bone Tissue Regeneration,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 4 (2023): 134.

[76] J. Li, G. Wang, X. Wang, et al., “Oriented Conversion of HMF to FDCA Under Mild Conditions Over Lignin-Tailored Co Single-Atom Catalyst With Enhanced Co Loadings,” ACS Catalysis 14 (2024): 16003-16013.

[77] Y. Wang, X. X. Ji, S. Liu, et al., “Effects of Two Different Enzyme Treatments on the Microstructure of Outer Surface of Wheat Straw,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 934-947.

[78] Y. Xu, W. Li, T. Xu, G. Wang, W. Huan, and C. Si, “Straightforward Fabrication of Lignin-Derived Carbon-Bridged Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Improved Visible Photocatalysis of Tetracycline Hydrochloride Assisted by Peroxymonosulfate Activation,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 6 (2023): 197.

[79] H. Zhang, K. Yang, Y. Tao, et al., “Biomass Directional Pyrolysis Based on Element Economy to Produce High-Quality Fuels, Chemicals, Carbon Materials—A Review,” Biotechnology Advances 69 (2023): 108262.

[80] S. Yu, J. He, Z. Zhang, et al., “Towards Negative Emissions: Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass for Sustainable Carbon Materials,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2307412.

[81] H. Liu, T. Xu, Q. Liang, Q. Zhao, D. Zhao, and C. Si, “Compressible Cellulose Nanofibrils/Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite Carbon Aerogel for Solid-State Supercapacitor,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 1168-1179.

[82] H. Liu, H. Du, T. Zheng, et al., “Cellulose Based Composite Foams and Aerogels for Advanced Energy Storage Devices,” Chemical Engineering Journal 426 (2021): 130817.

[83] T. Xu, Y. Wang, K. Liu, et al., “Ultralight MXene/Carbon Nanotube Composite Aerogel for High-Performance Flexible Supercapacitor,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 3 (2023): 108.

[84] Z. Zhu and Z. Xu, “The Rational Design of Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials Towards Next-Generation Energy Storage: A Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 134 (2020): 110308.

[85] T. Xu, H. Du, H. Liu, et al., “Advanced Nanocellulose-Based Composites for Flexible Functional Energy Storage Devices,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 48 (2021): 2101368.

[86] Q. Liang, K. Liu, T. Xu, et al, “Interfacial Modulation of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene by Cellulose Nanofibrils to Construct Hybrid Fibers With High Volumetric Specific Capacitance,” Small 20 (2023): 2307344.

[87] T. Xu, K. Liu, N. Sheng, et al., “Biopolymer-Based Hydrogel Electrolytes for Advanced Energy Storage/Conversion Devices: Properties, Applications, and Perspectives,” Energy Storage Materials 48 (2022): 244-262.

[88] Q. Zhao, T. Xu, K. Liu, et al., “Biomass-Based Functional Materials for Rechargeable Zn-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 71 (2024): 103605.

[89] T. Xu, Q. Song, K. Liu, et al., “Nanocellulose-Assisted Construction of Multifunctional MXene-Based Aerogels With Engineering Biomimetic Texture for Pressure Sensor and Compressible Electrode,” Nano-Micro Letters 15, no. 1 (2023): 98.

[90] Y. Wang, M. Zhang, X. Shen, et al., “Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials: Controllable Preparation and Versatile Applications,” Small 17, no. 40 (2021): 2008079.

[91] M. Zhang, Y. Duan, T. Chen, et al., “Lignocellulosic Materials for Energy Storage Devices,” Industrial Crops and Products 203 (2023): 117174.

[92] X. Yang, H. He, T. Lv, and J. Qiu, “Fabrication of Biomass-Based Functional Carbon Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage,” Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports 154 (2023): 100736.

[93] W. Li, C. Li, Y. Xu, et al., “Heteroatom-Doped and Graphitization-Enhanced Lignin-Derived Hierarchically Porous Carbon via Facile Assembly of Lignin-Fe Coordination for High-Voltage Symmetric Supercapacitors,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 659 (2024): 374-384.

[94] W. Li, G. Wang, W. Sui, Y. Xu, A. M. Parvez, and C. Si, “Novel Metal-Lignin Assembly Strategy for One-Pot Fabrication of Lignin-Derived Heteroatom-Doped Hierarchically Porous Carbon and Its Application in High-Performance Supercapacitor,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 234 (2023): 123603.

[95] W. Li, G. Wang, W. Sui, T. Xu, L. Dai, and C. Si, “Lignin-Derived Heteroatom-Doped Hierarchically Porous Carbon for High-Performance Supercapacitors: “Structure-Function” Relationships Between Lignin Heterogeneity and Carbon Materials,” Industrial Crops and Products 204 (2023): 117276.

[96] W. Li, G. Wang, W. Sui, et al., “Facile and Scalable Preparation of Cage-Like Mesoporous Carbon From Lignin-Based Phenolic Resin and Its Application in Supercapacitor Electrodes,” Carbon 196 (2022): 819-827.

[97] S. Liu, A. Wang, Y. Liu, et al., “Catalytically Active Carbon for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Energy Conversion: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives,” Advanced Science 11 (2024): 2308040.

[98] Y. Feng, J. Jiang, Y. Xu, et al., “Biomass Derived Diverse Carbon Nanostructure for Electrocatalysis, Energy Conversion and Storage,” Carbon 211 (2023): 118105.

[99] G. Zhang, X. Liu, L. Wang, and H. Fu, “Recent Advances of Biomass Derived Carbon-Based Materials for Efficient Electrochemical Energy Devices,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 10, no. 17 (2022): 9277-9307.

[100] S. S. Sekhon, J. Lee, and J. S. Park, “Biomass-Derived Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction and Evolution Reaction: A Review,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 65 (2022): 149-172.

[101] H. He, R. Zhang, P. Zhang, et al., “Functional Carbon From Nature: Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials and the Recent Progress of Their Applications,” Advanced Science 10, no. 16 (2023): 2205557.

[102] B. A. Lim, S. Lim, Y. L. Pang, S. H. Shuit, and S. H. Kuan, “Critical Review on the Development of Biomass Waste as Precursor for Carbon Material as Electrocatalysts for Metal-Air Batteries,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 184 (2023): 113451.

[103] X. Zhang, R. Han, Y. Liu, et al., “Porous and Graphitic Structure Optimization of Biomass-Based Carbon Materials From 0D to 3D for Supercapacitors: A Review,” Chemical Engineering Journal 460 (2023): 141607.

[104] Y. Liu, L. Zhang, H. Cai, et al., “Biomass-Derived Carbon Dots With Pharmacological Activity for Biomedicine: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives,” Science Bulletin 69, no. 19 (2024): 3127-3149.

[105] X. Zhao, P. Gao, B. Shen, X. Wang, T. Yue, and Z. Han, “Recent Advances in Lignin-Derived Mesoporous Carbon Based-On Template Methods,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 188 (2023): 113808.

[106] J. Barasarathi, P. S. Abdullah, and E. C. Uche, “Application of Magnetic Carbon Nanocomposite From Agro-Waste for the Removal of Pollutants From Water and Wastewater,” Chemosphere 305 (2022): 135384.

[107] S. Wang, L. Zhao, W. Wang, et al., “Morphology Control of Ceria Nanocrystals for Catalytic Conversion of CO₂ With Methanol,” Nanoscale 5, no. 12 (2013): 5582-5588.

[108] Q. Yang, H. Peng, Q. Zhang, et al., “Atomically Dispersed High-Density Al-N₄ Sites in Porous Carbon for Efficient Photodriven CO₂ Cycloaddition,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 45 (2021): 2103186.

[109] Y. Sun, Q. Liu, S. Gao, et al., “Pits Confined in Ultrathin Cerium(IV) Oxide for Studying Catalytic Centers in Carbon Monoxide Oxidation,” Nature Communications 4, no. 1 (2013): 2899.

[110] R. Jia, Y. Wang, C. Wang, Y. Ling, Y. Yu, and B. Zhang, “Boosting Selective Nitrate Electroreduction to Ammonium by Constructing Oxygen Vacancies in TiO₂,” ACS Catalysis 10, no. 6 (2020): 3533-3540.

[111] S. Zhu, X. Li, X. Jiao, et al., “Selective CO₂ Photoreduction into C₂ Product Enabled by Charge-Polarized Metal Pair Sites,” Nano Letters 21, no. 5 (2021): 2324-2331.

[112] Y. Lin, Y. Dong, X. Wang, and L. Chen, “Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction in Acidic Media,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 22 (2023): 2210565.

[113] H. Zhang, H. Guang, R. Li, et al., “Doping Engineering: Modulating the Intrinsic Activity of Bifunctional Carbon-Based Oxygen Electrocatalysts for High-Performance Zinc-Air Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 10, no. 41 (2022): 21797-21815.

[114] Z. Li, S. Ji, Y. Liu, et al., “Well-Defined Materials for Heterogeneous Catalysis: From Nanoparticles to Isolated Single-Atom Sites,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 2 (2020): 623-682.

[115] A. Afraz, A. A. Rafati, A. Hajian, and M. Khoshnood, “Electrodeposition of Pt Nanoparticles on New Porous Graphitic Carbon Nanostructures Prepared From Biomass for Fuel Cell and Methanol Sensing Applications,” Electrocatalysis 6, no. 2 (2015): 220-228.

[116] N. Ma, Y. Jia, X. Yang, et al., “Seaweed Biomass Derived (Ni,Co)/CNT Nanoaerogels: Efficient Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Evolution and Reduction Reactions,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 4, no. 17 (2016): 6376-6384.

[117] D. Gu, R. Ma, Y. Zhou, et al., “Synthesis of Nitrogen-Doped Porous Carbon Spheres With Improved Porosity Toward the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 5, no. 11 (2017): 11105-11116.

[118] J. Liu, Y. G. Ji, B. Qiao, et al., “N,S Co-Doped Carbon Nanofibers Derived From Bacterial Cellulose/Poly(Methylene Blue) Hybrids: Efficient Electrocatalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Catalysts 8, no. 7 (2018): 269.

[119] Q. Wu, X. Zhou, J. Xu, F. Cao, and C. Li, “Adenine Derivative Host With Interlaced 2D Structure and Dual Lithiophilic-Sulfiphilic Sites to Enable High-Loading Li-S Batteries,” ACS Nano 13, no. 8 (2019): 9520-9532.

[120] Y. Li, P. Zhou, H. Li, et al., “A Freestanding Flexible Single-Atom Cobalt-Based Multifunctional Interlayer Toward Reversible and Durable Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Small Methods 4, no. 3 (2020): 1900701.

[121] J. Lee, H. S. Kim, J. H. Jang, et al., “Atomic-Scale Engineered Fe Single-Atom Electrocatalyst Based on Waste Pig Blood for High-Performance AEMFCs,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 9, no. 23 (2021): 7863-7872.

[122] S. Zhang, T. Shi, K. Li, et al., “Ambient Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation over a Bifunctional Mo-(O-C₂)₄ Site Catalyst,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 126, no. 2 (2022): 965-973.

[123] J. Bi, P. Li, J. Liu, et al., “High-Rate CO₂ Electrolysis to Formic Acid over a Wide Potential Window: An Electrocatalyst Comprised of Indium Nanoparticles on Chitosan-Derived Graphene,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 36 (2023): e202307612.

[124] C. Zhang, X. Wang, R. Zhao, F. Ndayisenga, and Z. Yu, “Electronic Configuration Regulation of Single-Atomic Mn Sites Mediated By Mo/Mn Clusters for an Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Chemical Science 15, no. 5 (2024): 1894-1905.

[125] Y. Wang, T. Xu, J. Qi, et al., “Wet Spun Cellulose Nanocrystal/Mxene Hybrid Fiber Regulated By Bridging Effect for High Electrochemical Performance Supercapacitor,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 7, no. 4 (2024): 120.

[126] F. Shen, R. L. Smith, , J. Li, H. Guo, X. Zhang, and X. Qi, “Critical Assessment of Reaction Pathways for Conversion of Agricultural Waste Biomass Into Formic Acid,” Green Chemistry 23, no. 4 (2021): 1536-1561.

[127] Y. Wang, K. Liu, M. Zhang, et al., “Sustainable Polysaccharide-Based Materials for Intelligent Packaging,” Carbohydrate Polymers 313 (2023): 120851.

[128] H. Zhou, L. Yan, D. Tang, et al, “Solar-Driven Drum-Type Atmospheric Water Harvester Based on Bio-Based Gels With Fast Adsorption/Desorption Kinetics,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2403876.

[129] Y. Wang, J. Qi, M. Zhang, et al., “Cellulose-Based Aerogels, Films, and Fibers for Advanced Biomedical Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 497 (2024): 154434.

[130] Y. Guan, H. He, D. Tang, et al., “Functional Cellulose Paper With High Transparency, High Haze, and UV-Blocking for Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 7, no. 1 (2024): 12.

[131] Y. Wang, T. Xu, J. Qi, K. Liu, M. Zhang, and C. Si, “Nano/Micro Flexible Fiber and Paper-Based Advanced Functional Packaging Materials,” Food Chemistry 458 (2024): 140329.

[132] L. Dai, R. Liu, L. Q. Hu, Z. F. Zou, and C. L. Si, “Lignin Nanoparticle as a Novel Green Carrier for the Efficient Delivery of Resveratrol,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 5, no. 9 (2017): 8241-8249.

[133] Y. Wang, T. Xu, K. Liu, et al., “Nanocellulose-Based Advanced Materials for Flexible Supercapacitor Electrodes,” Industrial Crops and Products 204 (2023): 117378.

[134] L. Dai, J. Lu, F. Kong, K. Liu, H. Wei, and C. Si, “Reversible Photo-Controlled Release of Bovine Serum Albumin by Azobenzene-Containing Cellulose Nanofibrils-Based Hydrogel,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 2, no. 3 (2019): 462-470.

[135] J. Xu, R. Liu, L. Wang, et al., “Towards a Deep Understanding of the Biomass Fractionation in Respect of Lignin Nanoparticle Formation,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 6 (2023): 214.

[136] F. Ran, C. Li, Z. Hao, et al., “Combined Bactericidal Process of Lignin and Silver in a Hybrid Nanoparticle on E. coli,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5, no. 3 (2022): 1841-1851.

[137] Y. Yang, Y. Guan, C. Li, et al., “Application and Carbon Footprint Evaluation of Lignin-Based Composite Materials,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 7, no. 2 (2024): 61.

[138] Y. Zheng, T. Liu, H. He, et al., “Lignin-Based Epoxy Composite Vitrimers With Light-Controlled Remoldability,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 1 (2023): 53.

[139] M. Ye, S. Wang, X. Ji, Z. Tian, L. Dai, and C. Si, “Nanofibrillated Cellulose-Based Superhydrophobic Coating With Antimicrobial Performance,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 1 (2022): 30.

[140] X. Zhang, X. Xu, C. Li, et al., “Metal-Free Graphitic Carbon Nitride/Black Phosphorus Quantum Dots Heterojunction Photocatalyst for the Removal of ARG Contamination,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 6, no. 4 (2023): 145.

[141] Y. Zheng, H. Liu, L. Yan, H. Yang, L. Dai, and C. Si, “Lignin-Based Encapsulation of Liquid Metal Particles for Flexible and High-Efficiently Recyclable Electronics,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 7 (2024): 2310653.

[142] M. Zhang, T. Xu, K. Liu, et al., “Modulation and Mechanisms of Cellulose-Based Hydrogels for Flexible Sensors,” SusMat 4 (2024): e255.

[143] Q. Fan, C. Song, and P. Fu, “Advances in the Improvement of the Quality and Efficiency of Biomass-Derived Porous Carbon: A Comprehensive Review on Synthesis Strategies and Heteroatom Doping Effects,” Journal of Cleaner Production 452 (2024): 142169.

[144] Y. Sun, X. L. Shi, Y. L. Yang, et al., “Biomass-Derived Carbon for High-Performance Batteries: From Structure to Properties,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 24 (2022): 2201584.

[145] P. Kaur, G. Verma, and S. S. Sekhon, “Biomass Derived Hierarchical Porous Carbon Materials as Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysts in Fuel Cells,” Progress in Materials Science 102 (2019): 1-71.

[146] T. Len, V. Bressi, A. M. Balu, et al., “Thermokinetics of Production of Biochar From Crop Residues: An Overview,” Green Chemistry 24, no. 20 (2022): 7801-7817.

[147] H. Gomaa, M. A. Shenashen, M. F. Cheira, et al., “A Novel, Spongy Mesoporous Hybrid Bio-Adsorbents Derived From Agricultural Waste for Highly Selective Thorium Recovery,” Journal of Cleaner Production 402 (2023): 136819.

[148] W. Yang, H. Chen, X. Han, S. Ding, Y. Shan, and Y. Liu, “Preparation of Magnetic Co-Fe Modified Porous Carbon From Agricultural Wastes By Microwave and Steam Activation for Mercury Removal,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 381 (2020): 120981.

[149] S. Khan, P. Das, M. I. Thaher, M. AbdulQuadir, C. Mahata, and H. Al Jabri, “Utilization of Nitrogen-Rich Agricultural Waste Streams by Microalgae for the Production of Protein and Value-Added Compounds,” Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 41 (2023): 100797.

[150] N. Che, J. Qu, J. Wang, N. Liu, C. Li, and Y. Liu, “Adsorption of Phosphate Onto Agricultural Waste Biochars With Ferrite/Manganese Modified-Ball-Milled Treatment and Its Reuse in Saline Soil,” Science of the Total Environment 915 (2024): 169841.

[151] H. Wang, Y. Shao, S. Mei, et al., “Polymer-Derived Heteroatom-Doped Porous Carbon Materials,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 17 (2020): 9363-9419.

[152] J. Wang and W. Q. Han, “A Review of Heteroatom Doped Materials for Advanced Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 2 (2022): 2107166.

[153] S. K. Singh, K. Takeyasu, and J. Nakamura, “Active Sites and Mechanism of Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysis on Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Materials,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 13 (2019): 1804297.

[154] S. Park, J. Kim, and K. Kwon, “A Review on Biomass-Derived N-Doped Carbons as Electrocatalysts in Electrochemical Energy Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 446 (2022): 137116.

[155] S. S. Sekhon and J. S. Park, “Biomass-Derived N-Doped Porous Carbon Nanosheets for Energy Technologies,” Chemical Engineering Journal 425 (2021): 129017.

[156] A. Mohammad, P. Chandra, M. E. Khan, C. H. Choi, and T. Yoon, “Sulfur-Doped Graphitic Carbon Nitride: Tailored Nanostructures for Photocatalytic, Sensing, and Energy Storage Applications,” Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 322 (2023): 103048.

[157] Q. Wang and D. Astruc, “State of the Art and Prospects in Metal-Organic Framework (MOF)-Based and MOF-Derived Nanocatalysis,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 2 (2020): 1438-1511.

[158] C. Huang, J. Zhou, D. Duan, et al., “Roles of Heteroatoms in Electrocatalysts for Alkaline Water Splitting: A Review Focusing on the Reaction Mechanism,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 43, no. 8 (2022): 2091-2110.

[159] J. C. Li, P. X. Hou, and C. Liu, “Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Nanotube and Graphene-Based Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Small 13, no. 45 (2017): 1702002.

[160] O. S. Djandja, W. Dessie, Z. Huang, et al., “Activated Nitrogen-Doped Porous Carbon From Organic Solid Waste to Energy Storage Materials: Pore Structure Forming and N-Doping Paths From Recent Methods,” Journal of Energy Storage 98 (2024): 113181.

[161] Q. Jiang, Y. Cai, X. Sang, Q. Zhang, J. Ma, and X. Chen, “Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Materials As Supercapacitor Electrodes: A Mini Review,” Energy & Fuels 38, no. 12 (2024): 10542-10559.

[162] P. Bai, W. Liu, C. Yang, S. Wei, and L. Xu, “Boosting Electrochemical Performance of Activated Carbon By Tuning Effective Pores and Synergistic Effects of Active Species,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021): 290-301.

[163] J. Zhao, Q. Li, Q. Zhang, and R. Liu, “Carbon Tube-Graphene Heterostructure With Different N-Doping Configurations Induces an Electrochemically Active-Active Interface for Efficient Oxygen Electrocatalysis,” Chemical Engineering Journal 431 (2022): 133730.

[164] C. Li, W. Xu, L. Ye, J. Liu, and F. Wang, “Hydrothermal-Induced Formation of Well-Defined Hollow Carbons With Curvature-Activated N-C Sites for Zn-Air Batteries,” Chemistry - A European Journal 27, no. 20 (2021): 6247-6253.

[165] H. Jiang, J. Gu, X. Zheng, et al., “Defect-Rich and Ultrathin N Doped Carbon Nanosheets as Advanced Trifunctional Metal-Free Electrocatalysts for the ORR, OER and HER,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 1 (2019): 322-333.

[166] H. M. Xu, C. J. Huang, T. Y. Shuai, et al., “Noble Metal-Free N-Doped Carbon-Based Electrocatalysts for Air Electrode of Rechargeable Zinc-Air Battery,” Science China Materials 66, no. 8 (2023): 2953-3003.

[167] H. Komal Zafar, S. Zainab, M. Masood, et al., “Recent Advances on Nitrogen-Doped Porous Carbons Towards Electrochemical Supercapacitor Applications,” The Chemical Record 24, no. 1 (2024): e202300161.

[168] X. Feng, Y. Bai, M. Liu, et al., “Untangling the Respective Effects of Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Materials in Batteries, Supercapacitors and the ORR to Design High Performance Materials,” Energy & Environmental Science 14, no. 4 (2021): 2036-2089.

[169] S. T. Senthilkumar, S. O. Park, J. Kim, S. M. Hwang, S. K. Kwak, and Y. Kim, “Seawater Battery Performance Enhancement Enabled By a Defect/Edge-Rich, Oxygen Self-Doped Porous Carbon Electrocatalyst,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 27 (2017): 14174-14181.

[170] W. Zhou, L. Xie, J. Gao, et al., “Selective H₂O₂ Electrosynthesis By O-Doped and Transition-Metal-O-Doped Carbon Cathodes Via O₂ Electroreduction: A Critical Review,” Chemical Engineering Journal 410 (2021): 128368.

[171] F. Liu, J. Niu, X. Chuan, and Y. Zhao, “Nitrogen and Phosphorus Co-Doped Porous Carbon: Dopant, Synthesis, Performance Enhancement Mechanism and Versatile Applications,” Journal of Power Sources 601 (2024): 234308.

[172] S. Wu, H. Peng, L. Huang, et al., “P-Doped Hard Carbon Microspheres for Sodium-Ion Battery Anodes With Superior Rate and Cyclic Performance,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 10, no. 20 (2023): 5908-5916.

[173] N. Yang, X. Zheng, L. Li, J. Li, and Z. Wei, “Influence of Phosphorus Configuration on Electronic Structure and Oxygen Reduction Reactions of Phosphorus-Doped Graphene,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 121, no. 35 (2017): 19321-19328.

[174] J. Xie, R. Zhuang, Y. Du, Y. Pei, D. Tan, and F. Xu, “Advances in Sulfur-Doped Carbon Materials for Use as Anodes in Sodium-Ion Batteries,” New Carbon Materials 38, no. 2 (2023): 305-316.

[175] Y. Du, B. Zhang, R. Kang, et al., “Boron-Doping-Induced Defect Engineering Enables High Performance of a Graphene Cathode for Aluminum Batteries,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 9, no. 5 (2022): 925-934.

[176] T. Wang, X. Zang, X. Wang, X. Gu, Q. Shao, and N. Cao, “Recent Advances in Fluorine-Doped/Fluorinated Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitors,” Energy Storage Materials 30 (2020): 367-384.

[177] S. Zeng, S. Wang, H. Zhuang, et al., “Fluorine-Doped Carbon: A Metal-Free Electrocatalyst for Oxygen Reduction to Peroxide,” Electrochimica Acta 420 (2022): 140460.

[178] Q. Zhang, B. X. Wang, S. Chen, S. Y. Zhang, and J. Hong, “S Edge/Center-Selectively Doped Graphene Oxide for Bisphenol A Electro-Degradation: Preparation, Efficiency and Mechanism,” Chemical Engineering Journal 420 (2021): 127669.

[179] S. S. Sekhon, P. Kaur, and J. S. Park, “From Coconut Shell Biomass to Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalyst: Tuning Porosity and Nitrogen Doping,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021): 111173.

[180] X. Tang, D. Liu, Y. J. Wang, et al., “Research Advances in Biomass-Derived Nanostructured Carbons and Their Composite Materials for Electrochemical Energy Technologies,” Progress in Materials Science 118 (2021): 100770.

[181] F. Qiang, J. Feng, H. Wang, et al., “Oxygen Engineering Enables N-Doped Porous Carbon Nanofibers as Oxygen Reduction/Evolution Reaction Electrocatalysts for Flexible Zinc-Air Batteries,” ACS Catalysis 12, no. 7 (2022): 4002-4015.

[182] C. Liang, X. Y. Wei, W. Liu, et al., “Rational Regulation of Cu Species in N-Doped Carbon-Hosted Cu-Based Single-Atom Electrocatalysts for the Conversion of Nitrate to Ammonia,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 522 (2025): 216174.

[183] S. G. Peera, R. S. Menon, S. K. Das, et al., “Oxygen Reduction Electrochemistry at F Doped Carbons: A Review on the Effect of Highly Polarized C-F Bonding in Catalysis and Stability of Fuel Cell Catalysts,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 500 (2024): 215491.

[184] B. Wu, H. Meng, D. M. Morales, et al., “Nitrogen-Rich Carbonaceous Materials for Advanced Oxygen Electrocatalysis: Synthesis, Characterization, and Activity of Nitrogen Sites,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 31 (2022): 2204137.

[185] S. S. Sekhon and J. S. Park, “Biomass-Derived N-Doped Porous Carbon Nanosheets for Energy Technologies,” Chemical Engineering Journal 425 (2021): 129017.

[186] Y. Li, D. Wang, Y. Guan, et al., “Theory-Driven Design of Local Spin-State Modulation at Atomically Dispersed Iron Sites for Enhanced Co₂ Electroreduction,” Nano Energy 132 (2024): 110370.

[187] S. Chen, H. M. Yan, J. Tseng, et al., “Synthesis of Metal-Nitrogen-Carbon Electrocatalysts With Atomically Regulated Nitrogen-Doped Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 146, no. 20 (2024): 13703-13708.

[188] H. Xu, H. Liu, W. Yang, et al., “Enhanced Electrocatalytic Conversion of Tellurium With MnO Hollow Nanospheres Modified Hierarchical N-Doped Carbon Nanosheets in High-Performance Aqueous Zn-Te Battery,” Chemical Engineering Journal 485 (2024): 149825.

[189] F. Wei, Y. Zeng, Y. Guo, et al., “Recent Progress on the Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Cathode for Zinc Ion Hybrid Capacitors,” Chemical Engineering Journal 468 (2023): 143576.

[190] M. Fan, J. Cui, J. Wu, R. Vajtai, D. Sun, and P. M. Ajayan, “Improving the Catalytic Activity of Carbon-Supported Single Atom Catalysts by Polynary Metal or Heteroatom Doping,” Small 16, no. 22 (2020): 1906782.

[191] P. H. Li and W. J. Wu, “Co-Doping Mechanism of Biomass-Derived Nitrogen-Boron Porous Carbon and Its Applications in Energy Storage and Environmental Purification,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 1002 (2024): 175098.

[192] Q. Zhang, Y. L. Yang, Y. Zhou, and J. Hong, “Paracetamol Degradation via Electrocatalysis With B and N Co-Doped Reduced Graphene Oxide: Insight Into the Mechanism on Catalyst Surface and in Solution,” Chemosphere 287 (2022): 132070.

[193] L. Liu, X. Zhang, D. Zhang, et al., “Regulating the N/B Ratio to Construct B, N Co-Doped Carbon Nanotubes on Carbon Felt for High-Performance Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 473 (2023): 145454.

[194] S. Ghosh, S. Barg, S. M. Jeong, and K. Ostrikov, “Heteroatom-Doped and Oxygen-Functionalized Nanocarbons for High-Performance Supercapacitors,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 32 (2020): 2001239.

[195] M. Kim, L. Ma, Z. Li, et al., “N and S Co-Doped Nanosheet-Like Porous Carbon Derived From Sorghum Biomass: Mechanical Nanoarchitecturing for Upgraded Potassium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 31 (2023): 16626-16635.

[196] J. Wang, H. Huang, P. Wang, S. Wang, and J. Li, “N, S Synergistic Effect in Hierarchical Porous Carbon for Enhanced Nrr Performance,” Carbon 179 (2021): 358-364.

[197] Y. Yu, Z. Ren, L. Li, et al., “Ionic Liquid-Induced Graphitization of Biochar: N/P Dual-Doped Carbon Nanosheets for High-Performance Lithium/Sodium Storage,” Journal of Materials Science 56, no. 13 (2021): 8186-8201.

[198] Y. Dai, Z. T. Qu, W. K. Wang, M. S. Li, K. X. Chen, and S. S. Lyu, “Hollow Carbon Nanospheres With Optimized Nitrogen Configuration Controlled by Heteroatom Doping for High-Performance Potassium-Ion Storage,” Carbon 224 (2024): 119051.

[199] B. He, L. Feng, G. Hong, et al., “A Generic F-Doped Strategy for Biomass Hard Carbon to Achieve Fast and Stable Kinetics in Sodium/Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 490 (2024): 151636.

[200] L. Yang, B. He, M. Li, et al., “A Fluorine/Oxygen Co-Doping Scheme for Biomass Carbon Provides Excellent Rapid Reaction Kinetics for Sodium/Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 11, no. 15 (2024): 4672-4685.

[201] N. Kitchamsetti, S. Payyavula, and J. S. Cho, “A Review on Hollow Nanostructures, Its Derived Composites: Preparation, Structural Control, Alterations, and Their Utilization as an Electrode for Supercapacitors, Rechargeable Batteries and Electrocatalysis,” Journal of Energy Storage 98 (2024): 113143.

[202] W. Li, W. Zhang, Y. Xu, et al., “Heteroatom-Doped Lignin Derived Carbon Materials With Improved Electrochemical Performance for Advanced Supercapacitors,” Chemical Engineering Journal 497 (2024): 154829.

[203] R. Yin, S. Zhu, T. Lu, et al., “Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Oxygen Tri-Doped Carbon Nanosheets as Efficient Multifunctional Electrocatalysts for Zn-Air Batteries and Water Splitting,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 58 (2023): 21959-21968.

[204] N. Huang, J. Zhang, Y. Sun, X. Sun, Z. Qiu, and X. Ge, “A Non-Traditional Biomass-Derived N, P, and S Ternary Self-Doped 3D Multichannel Carbon ORR Electrocatalyst,” New Journal of Chemistry 44, no. 34 (2020): 14604-14614.

[205] Y. Liu, Q. Wang, J. Zhang, et al., “Recent Advances in Carbon-Supported Noble-Metal Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction: Syntheses, Structures, and Properties,” Advanced Energy Materials 12, no. 28 (2022): 2200928.

[206] K. Alorku, C. Shen, Y. Li, Y. Xu, C. Wang, and Q. Liu, “Biomass-Derived 2-methyltetrahydrofuran Platform: A Focus on Precious and Non-Precious Metal-Based Catalysts for the Biorefinery,” Green Chemistry 24, no. 11 (2022): 4201-4236.

[207] R. Du, X. Jin, R. Hübner, X. Fan, Y. Hu, and A. Eychmüller, “Engineering Self-Supported Noble Metal Foams Toward Electrocatalysis and Beyond,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 11 (2020): 1901945.

[208] S. Lin, L. Zhang, F. Han, et al., “Rational Design of Bidirectional Electrocatalysts and Accelerated Sulfur Redox Reactions in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 475 (2024): 143602.

[209] H. Li, “Pd Oxide Nanoparticles Enhanced Biomass Driven N-Doped Carbon for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Chemical Physics Letters 815 (2023): 140372.

[210] S. Wang, M. Yang, C. Cui, Q. Zheng, C. Zhou, and Y. Xin, “Duckweed Derived N, P-Doped Carbon Microspheres Supported Ru as Highly Active Catalyst for Electrocatalytic Hydrodechlorination Diclofenac,” Electrochimica Acta 462 (2023): 142707.

[211] X. Long, F. Huang, Z. Yao, et al., “Advancements in Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction: A Comprehensive Review of Single-Atom Catalysts for Sustainable Ammonia Synthesis,” Small 20 (2024): 2400551.

[212] K. Belay Ibrahim, T. Ahmed Shifa, S. Zorzi, M. Getaye Sendeku, E. Moretti, and A. Vomiero, “Emerging 2D Materials Beyond Mxenes and TMDs: Transition Metal Carbo-Chalcogenides,” Progress in Materials Science 144 (2024): 101287.

[213] H. Yi, S. Liu, C. Lai, et al., “Recent Advance of Transition-Metal-Based Layered Double Hydroxide Nanosheets: Synthesis, Properties, Modification, and Electrocatalytic Applications,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 14 (2021): 2002863.

[214] X. Xie, L. Du, L. Yan, et al., “Oxygen Evolution Reaction in Alkaline Environment: Material Challenges and Solutions,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 21 (2022): 2110036.

[215] Q. Xiong, X. Zhang, Q. Cheng, et al., “Highly Selective Electrocatalytic Cl⁻ Oxidation Reaction By Oxygen-Modified Cobalt Nanoparticles Immobilized Carbon Nanofibers for Coupling With Brine Water Remediation and H₂ Production,” Nano Research 14, no. 5 (2021): 1443-1449.

[216] X. Shen, C. Zhang, B. Han, and F. Wang, “Catalytic Self-Transfer Hydrogenolysis of Lignin With Endogenous Hydrogen: Road to the Carbon-Neutral Future,” Chemical Society Reviews 51, no. 5 (2022): 1608-1628.

[217] L. Tian, R. Hao, Y. X. Zhou, et al., “Lignin-Derived Ordered Mesoporous Carbon-Supported Bimetallic Cu-Co Nanoparticles for Enrichment and Electroreduction of Nitrate to Ammonia,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 44 (2023): 15865-15875.

[218] J. Zhang, J. Liu, B. Liu, X. Lin, and Y. Qin, “CoFe-Co_xN Heterojunction Encapsulated By Lignin-Derived Nitrogen-Doped Biochar as Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysts for Zinc-Air Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Science 280 (2023): 119049.

[219] P. Dubey, V. Shrivastav, T. Boruah, et al, “Unveiling the Potential of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Energy Storage: Developments, Challenges, and Future Prospects,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2400521.

[220] J. Chen, A. Naveed, Y. Nuli, J. Yang, and J. Wang, “Designing an Intrinsically Safe Organic Electrolyte for Rechargeable Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 31 (2020): 382-400.

[221] R. Lv, C. Luo, B. Liu, et al., “Unveiling Confinement Engineering for Achieving High-Performance Rechargeable Batteries,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2400508.

[222] Y. Wang, X. Yang, Y. Meng, et al., “Fluorine Chemistry in Rechargeable Batteries: Challenges, Progress, and Perspectives,” Chemical Reviews 124, no. 6 (2024): 3494-3589.

[223] X. Wang, Q. Weng, Y. Yang, Y. Bando, and D. Golberg, “Hybrid Two-Dimensional Materials in Rechargeable Battery Applications and Their Microscopic Mechanisms,” Chemical Society Reviews 45, no. 15 (2016): 4042-4073.

[224] M. Wu, G. Zhang, M. Wu, J. Prakash, and S. Sun, “Rational Design of Multifunctional Air Electrodes for Rechargeable Zn-Air Batteries: Recent Progress and Future Perspectives,” Energy Storage Materials 21 (2019): 253-286.

[225] R. Ma, Q. Li, D. Zhou, et al., “Ice/Salt Assisted Synthesis of Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Nitrogen Doped Carbon Nanosheets for Fast Lithium Storage,” Ceramics International 50, no. 16 (2024): 28378-28385.

[226] W. Luo, Q. He, C. Zhang, Z. Jiang, Y. Cheng, and H. Wang, “Lignin-Based Polymer Networks Enabled N, S Co-Doped Defect-Rich Hierarchically Porous Carbon Anode for Long-Cycle Li-Ion Batteries,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 12, no. 7 (2024): 2881-2892.

[227] S. Li, W. L. Song, X. Han, Q. Cui, Y. Zhu, and S. Jiao, “Low-Temperature Graphitization of Lignin via Co-Assisted Electrolysis in Molten Salt,” Green Energy & Environment 9, no. 9 (2024): 1449-1458.

[228] M. Liu, N. Li, S. Wang, Y. Li, C. Liang, and K. Yu, “3D Nanoflower-Like MoS₂ Grown on Wheat Straw Cellulose Carbon for Lithium-Ion Battery Anode Material,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 933 (2023): 167689.

[229] V. K. Bharti, A. D. Pathak, C. S. Sharma, and M. Khandelwal, “Ultra-High-Rate Lithium-Sulfur Batteries With High Sulfur Loading Enabled By Mn₂O₃-Carbonized Bacterial Cellulose Composite as a Cathode Host,” Electrochimica Acta 422 (2022): 140531.

[230] X. Lin, W. Li, V. Nguyen, et al., “Fe-Single-Atom Catalyst Nanocages Linked By Bacterial Cellulose-Derived Carbon Nanofiber Aerogel for Li-S Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 477 (2023): 146977.

[231] M. Cheng, W. Xia, R. Wang, et al., “Highly Dispersed Cobalt Clusters/Nanoparticles Embedded in Cellulose Nanocrystal Derived Carbon Aerogel As Efficient Sulfur Host for High Performance Lithium Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 608 (2024): 234645.

[232] S. Huang, D. Yang, X. Qiu, et al., “Boosting Surface-Dominated Sodium Storage of Carbon Anode Enabled by Coupling Graphene Nanodomains, Nitrogen-Doping, and Nanoarchitecture Engineering,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 33 (2022): 2203279.

[233] K. Wang, M. Li, Z. Zhu, et al., “Hard Carbon With Embedded Graphitic Nanofibers for Fast-Charge Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nano Energy 124 (2024): 109459.

[234] L. Zhong, W. Zhang, S. Sun, et al., “Engineering of the Crystalline Lattice of Hard Carbon Anodes Toward Practical Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 8 (2023): 2211872.

[235] Y.-L. Bai, Y.-S. Liu, T. Yan, R. Feng, C. Ma, and K.-X. Wang, “Nitrogen-Doping-Induced High-Performance Carbon Nanofiber Anodes for Potassium-Ion Storage,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 6, no. 4 (2023): 3020-3026.

[236] J. Zhu, C. Yan, X. Zhang, C. Yang, M. Jiang, and X. Zhang, “A Sustainable Platform of Lignin: From Bioresources to Materials and Their Applications in Rechargeable Batteries and Supercapacitors,” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 76 (2020): 100788.

[237] W. He, J. Duan, H. Liu, et al., “Conjugated Microporous Polymers for Advanced Chemical Sensing Applications,” Progress in Polymer Science 148 (2024): 101770.

[238] X. Fu and W. H. Zhong, “Biomaterials for High-Energy Lithium-Based Batteries: Strategies, Challenges, and Perspectives,” Advanced Energy Materials 9, no. 40 (2019): 1901774.

[239] D. Rehnlund, Z. Wang, and L. Nyholm, “Lithium-Diffusion Induced Capacity Losses in Lithium-Based Batteries,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 19 (2022): 2108827.

[240] Y. Fei and G. Li, “Unveiling the Pivotal Parameters for Advancing High Energy Density in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Comprehensive Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2312550.

[241] T. Tao, S. Lu, Y. Fan, W. Lei, S. Huang, and Y. Chen, “Anode Improvement in Rechargeable Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 48 (2017): 1700542.

[242] K. Jia, G. Yang, Y. He, et al., “Degradation Mechanisms of Electrodes Promotes Direct Regeneration of Spent Li-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 23 (2024): 2313273.

[243] H. Li, L. Wang, Y. Song, et al., “Significance of Current Collectors for High Performance Conventional Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 49 (2023): 2305515.

[244] L. Yang, S. Li, Y. Zhang, et al., “Multi-Scale Design of Silicon/Carbon Composite Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 97 (2024): 30-45.

[245] J. Xu, X. Cai, S. Cai, et al, “High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries: Recent Progress and a Promising Future in Applications,” Energy & Environmental Materials 6, no. 5 (2023): e12450.

[246] K. Yuan, Y. Lin, X. Li, et al., “High-Safety Anode Materials for Advanced Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Materials 7, no. 5 (2024): e12759.

[247] G. Xie, X. Tan, Z. Shi, et al, “Sio_x Based Anodes for Advanced Li-Ion Batteries: Recent Progress and Perspectives,” Advanced Functional Materials 34 (2024): 2414714.

[248] X. Jiang, Y. Chen, X. Meng, et al., “The Impact of Electrode With Carbon Materials on Safety Performance of Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Carbon 191 (2022): 448-470.

[249] L. Fan, R. Ma, Q. Zhang, X. Jia, and B. Lu, “Graphite Anode for a Potassium-Ion Battery With Unprecedented Performance,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58, no. 31 (2019): 10500-10505.

[250] T. Zhang and F. Ran, “Design Strategies of 3D Carbon-Based Electrodes for Charge/Ion Transport in Lithium Ion Battery and Sodium Ion Battery,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 17 (2021): 2010041.

[251] R. Zou, M. Qian, C. Wang, et al., “Biochar: From By-Products of Agro-Industrial Lignocellulosic Waste to Tailored Carbon-Based Catalysts for Biomass Thermochemical Conversions,” Chemical Engineering Journal 441 (2022): 135972.

[252] W. Li, Y. Xu, G. Wang, T. Xu, and C. Si, “Design and Functionalization of Lignocellulose-Derived Silicon-Carbon Composites for Rechargeable Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 14 (2024): 2403593.

[253] S. Li, W. L. Song, X. Han, Q. Cui, Y. Zhu, and S. Jiao, “Low-Temperature Graphitization of Lignin via Co-Assisted Electrolysis in Molten Salt,” Green Energy & Environment 9, no. 9 (2024): 1449-1458.

[254] X. Chen, Z. Zhang, R. Xu, et al., “In-Situ Embedding of Ultrasmall MnO Nanoparticles Into Pollen Biomass-Derived Hollow Porous N Heteroatoms Enriched Carbon Microspheres as High-Performance Anode for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 473 (2023): 145117.

[255] Y. Sun, X. L. Shi, Y. L. Yang, et al., “Biomass-Derived Carbon for High-Performance Batteries: From Structure to Properties,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 24 (2022): 2201584.

[256] H. Yi, S. Liu, C. Lai, et al., “Recent Advance of Transition-Metal-Based Layered Double Hydroxide Nanosheets: Synthesis, Properties, Modification, and Electrocatalytic Applications,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 14 (2021): 2002863.

[257] X. Xie, H. Peng, G. Ma, Z. Lei, and Y. Xu, “Recent Progress in Heteroatom Doping to Modulate the Coordination Environment of M-N-C Catalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 7, no. 13 (2023): 2595-2619.

[258] X. Kong, Z. Xi, Y. Jiang, et al., “Fe-N-C Decorated Fibrous Network-Wrapped Biomass SiO_x/C With Gradient Conductive Structure for High Performance Li-Ion Battery Anodes,” Chemical Engineering Journal 477 (2023): 147178.

[259] Y. Zhang, Z. Wen, J. Li, C. C. Yang, and Q. Jiang, “Coordination Environment Engineering of Single-Atom Catalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 7, no. 17 (2023): 3595-3624.

[260] Y. Fei and G. Li, “Unveiling the Pivotal Parameters for Advancing High Energy Density in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Comprehensive Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 21 (2024): 2312550.

[261] T. Wang, J. He, Z. Zhu, et al., “Heterostructures Regulating Lithium Polysulfides for Advanced Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 47 (2023): 2303520.

[262] T. Zhou, J. Liang, S. Ye, Q. Zhang, and J. Liu, “Fundamental, Application and Opportunities of Single Atom Catalysts for Li-S Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 55 (2023): 322-355.

[263] J. Zhou and A. Sun, “Redox Mediators for High Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Progress and Outlook,” Chemical Engineering Journal 495 (2024): 153648.

[264] P. Zeng, B. Su, X. Wang, et al., “In Situ Reconstruction of Electrocatalysts for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Progress and Prospects,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 33 (2023): 2301743.

[265] Q. Shao, S. Zhu, and J. Chen, “A Review on Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: Challenge, Development, and Perspective,” Nano Research 16, no. 6 (2023): 8097-8138.

[266] Y. Jin, N. Deng, Y. Li, et al., “Advanced Preparation and Application of Bimetallic Materials in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries: A Review,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 88 (2024): 469-512.

[267] B. Qi, X. Hong, Y. Jiang, et al., “A Review on Engineering Design for Enhancing Interfacial Contact in Solid-State Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 16, no. 1 (2024): 71.

[268] Y. Guo, Q. Niu, F. Pei, et al., “Interface Engineering Toward Stable Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 17, no. 4 (2024): 1330-1367.

[269] S. Zhai, A. M. Abraham, B. Chen, et al., “Abundant Canadian Pine With Polysulfide Redox Mediating ZnS/CuS Nanocomposite to Attain High-Capacity Lithium Sulfur Battery,” Carbon 195 (2022): 253-262.

[270] X. Hong, Y. Liu, J. Fu, et al., “A Wheat Flour Derived Hierarchical Porous Carbon/Graphitic Carbon Nitride Composite for High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Carbon 170 (2020): 119-126.

[271] X. Zhao, X. Sun, R. Guo, et al., “Simultaneous Realization of High Sulfur Utilization and Lithium Dendrite-Free via Dual-Effect Kinetic Regulation Strategy Toward Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 81 (2023): 260-271.

[272] Y. Yang, Z. Sun, Y. Wu, et al., “Porous Organic Framework Materials (MOF, COF, and HOF) as the Multifunctional Separator for Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries,” Small 20 (2024): 2401457.

[273] Z. Zhang, L. Gao, X. Sun, N. Deng, Y. Zhao, and W. Kang, “Matching Strategy Between Sulfide Solid Electrolyte and Various Anodes: Electrolyte Modification, Interface Engineering and Electrode Structure Design,” Energy Storage Materials 69 (2024): 103422.

[274] X. Gu and C. Lai, “One Dimensional Nanostructures Contribute Better Li-S and Li-Se Batteries: Progress, Challenges and Perspectives,” Energy Storage Materials 23 (2019): 190-224.

[275] W. Qiu, X. L. Huang, Y. Wang, et al., “Design Strategies of Performance-Enhanced Se Cathodes for Li-Se Batteries and Beyond,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 76 (2023): 528-546.

[276] N. Deng, Y. Feng, G. Wang, et al., “Rational Structure Designs of 2D Materials and Their Applications Toward Advanced Lithium-Sulfur Battery and Lithium-Selenium Battery,” Chemical Engineering Journal 401 (2020): 125976.

[277] T. Lyu, F. Luo, D. Wang, L. Bu, L. Tao, and Z. Zheng, “Carbon/Lithium Composite Anode for Advanced Lithium Metal Batteries: Design, Progress, In Situ Characterization, and Perspectives,” Advanced Energy Materials 12, no. 36 (2022): 2201493.

[278] Z. Hu, H. Su, M. Zhou, et al., “Lithiophilic Carbon Nanofiber/Graphene Nanosheet Composite Scaffold Prepared by a Scalable and Controllable Biofabrication Method for Ultrastable Dendrite-Free Lithium-Metal Anodes,” Small 18, no. 3 (2022): e2104735.

[279] Y. Qian, Z. Zhu, Y. Li, et al., “Degrading Biomass to Construct Cation-Gathered Spongy Layer Conjugated Electron-Enriched Carbon Framework for Li Metal Battery,” Energy Storage Materials 47 (2022): 620-628.

[280] P. Lu, F. Liu, F. Zhou, J. Qin, H. Shi, and Z.-S. Wu, “Lignin Derived Hierarchical Porous Carbon With Extremely Suppressed Polyselenide Shuttling for High-Capacity and Long-Cycle-Life Lithium-Selenium Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 55 (2021): 476-483.

[281] K. Wu, H. He, Q. Xue, et al., “CoSe₂-Decorated Carbon Nanofibers: A Catalytic Electrode for Uniform Li₂Se Nucleation in Lithium-Selenium Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 466 (2023): 142988.

[282] J. Chen, G. Adit, L. Li, Y. Zhang, D. H. C. Chua, and P. S. Lee, “Optimization Strategies Toward Functional Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Materials 6, no. 4 (2023): e12633.

[283] Q. Bai, L. Yang, H. Chen, and Y. Mo, “Computational Studies of Electrode Materials in Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 17 (2018): 1702998.

[284] S. C. Dey, B. Worfolk, L. Lower, et al., “Phenolic Resin Derived Hard Carbon Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Review,” ACS Energy Letters 9 (2024): 2590-2614.

[285] Z. He, Y. Huang, H. Liu, et al., “Anode Materials for Fast Charging Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nano Energy 129 (2024): 109996.

[286] X. Liu, X.-Y. Liu, N. Zhang, et al., “A High-Entropy Strategy for Stable Structure of Sodium Ion Batteries: From Fundamentals to Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 496 (2024): 153743.

[287] D. A. Stevens and J. R. Dahn, “The Mechanisms of Lithium and Sodium Insertion in Carbon Materials,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 148, no. 8 (2001): A803.

[288] F. Xie, Z. Xu, Z. Guo, et al., “Disordered Carbon Anodes for Na-Ion Batteries—Quo Vadis?,” Science China Chemistry 64, no. 10 (2021): 1679-1692.

[289] L. Yue, Y. Lei, Y. Niu, Y. Qi, and M. Xu, “Recent Advances of Pore Structure in Disordered Carbons for Sodium Storage: A Mini Review,” The Chemical Record 22, no. 10 (2022): e202200113.

[290] R. Qiu, D. Ma, H. Zheng, et al., “Performance Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies of Hard Carbon Anode and Solid Electrolyte Interface for Sodium-Ion Battery,” Nano Energy 128 (2024): 109920.

[291] S. Alvin, D. Yoon, C. Chandra, et al., “Revealing Sodium Ion Storage Mechanism in Hard Carbon,” Carbon 145 (2019): 67-81.

[292] A. Tagliaferro, M. Rovere, E. Padovano, M. Bartoli, and M. Giorcelli, “Introducing the Novel Mixed Gaussian-Lorentzian Lineshape in the Analysis of the Raman Signal of Biochar,” Nanomaterials 10, no. 9 (2020): 1748.

[293] M. Li, Z. Du, M. A. Khaleel, and I. Belharouak, “Materials and Engineering Endeavors Towards Practical Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 25 (2020): 520-536.

[294] J. Y. Hwang, S. T. Myung, and Y. K. Sun, “Sodium-Ion Batteries: Present and Future,” Chemical Society Reviews 46, no. 12 (2017): 3529-3614.

[295] G. Huang, H. Zhang, F. Gao, et al., “Overview of Hard Carbon Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Influencing Factors and Strategies to Extend Slope and Plateau Regions,” Carbon 228 (2024): 119354.

[296] S. Ma, W. Yan, Y. Dong, et al., “Recent Advances in Carbon-Based Anodes for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries: Mechanism, Modification and Characterizations,” Materials Today 75 (2024): 334-358.

[297] T. Xu, X. Qiu, X. Zhang, and Y. Xia, “Regulation of Surface Oxygen Functional Groups and Pore Structure of Bamboo-Derived Hard Carbon for Enhanced Sodium Storage Performance,” Chemical Engineering Journal 452 (2023): 139514.

[298] C. Senthil, J. W. Park, N. Shaji, G. S. Sim, and C. W. Lee, “Biomass Seaweed-Derived Nitrogen Self-Doped Porous Carbon Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Insights Into the Structure and Electrochemical Activity,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 64 (2022): 286-295.

[299] D. Alvira, D. Antorán, and J. J. Manyà, “Plant-Derived Hard Carbon as Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Comprehensive Review to Guide Interdisciplinary Research,” Chemical Engineering Journal 447 (2022): 137468.

[300] Y. Zhao, Z. Hu, C. Fan, et al., “Novel Structural Design and Adsorption/Insertion Coordinating Quasi-Metallic Na Storage Mechanism Toward High-Performance Hard Carbon Anode Derived From Carboxymethyl Cellulose,” Small 19, no. 41 (2023): e2303296.

[301] J. H. Jia, X. F. Lu, C. C. Yang, and Q. Jiang, “Advances in Bismuth-Based Anodes for Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 3 (2024): 1359-1391.

[302] X. Wu, Y. Chen, Z. Xing, et al., “Advanced Carbon-Based Anodes for Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 9, no. 21 (2019): 1900343.

[303] X. Yuan, B. Zhu, J. Feng, C. Wang, X. Cai, and R. Qin, “Recent Advance of Biomass-Derived Carbon As Anode for Sustainable Potassium Ion Battery,” Chemical Engineering Journal 405 (2021): 126897.

[304] H. Liu, X.-B. Cheng, Z. Jin, et al., “Recent Advances in Understanding Dendrite Growth on Alkali Metal Anodes,” EnergyChem 1, no. 1 (2019): 100003.

[305] Z. Li, Y. Gao, H. Huang, W. Wang, J. Zhang, and Q. Yu, “Development of Electrode Materials for Flexible Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 258 (2023): 110712.

[306] Y. Zhu, Y. Wang, Y. Wang, T. Xu, and P. Chang, “Research Progress on Carbon Materials as Negative Electrodes in Sodium- and Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Carbon Energy 4, no. 6 (2022): 1182-1213.

[307] J. Yu, M. Jiang, W. Zhang, et al., “Advancements and Prospects of Graphite Anode for Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Small Methods 7, no. 11 (2023): 2300708.

[308] F. Yuan, Z. Li, D. Zhang, et al., “Fundamental Understanding and Research Progress on the Interfacial Behaviors for Potassium-Ion Battery Anode,” Advanced Science 9, no. 20 (2022): 2200683.

[309] Y. Fu, Y. Dong, Y. Shen, H. Zhao, G. Shao, and Y. Lei, “Recent Advances in Developing High-Performance Anode for Potassium-Ion Batteries based on Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Materials,” Small 20 (2024): 2406630.

[310] J. C. Pramudita, D. Sehrawat, D. Goonetilleke, and N. Sharma, “An Initial Review of the Status of Electrode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 24 (2017): 1602911.

[311] J. Zheng, Y. Wu, Y. Sun, J. Rong, H. Li, and L. Niu, “Advanced Anode Materials of Potassium Ion Batteries: from Zero Dimension to Three Dimensions,” Nano-Micro Letters 13, no. 1 (2020): 12.

[312] Q. Yao and C. Zhu, “Advanced Post-Potassium-Ion Batteries as Emerging Potassium-Based Alternatives for Energy Storage,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 49 (2020): 2005209.

[313] M. Sha, L. Liu, H. Zhao, and Y. Lei, “Anode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Prospects,” Carbon Energy 2, no. 3 (2020): 350-369.

[314] A. V. Baskar, G. Singh, A. M. Ruban, et al., “Recent Progress in Synthesis and Application of Biomass-Based Hybrid Electrodes for Rechargeable Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 3 (2023): 2208349.

[315] M. Yang, Q. Kong, W. Feng, and W. Yao, “N/O Double-Doped Biomass Hard Carbon Material Realizes Fast and Stable Potassium Ion Storage,” Carbon 176 (2021): 71-82.

[316] M. Yang, Q. Kong, W. Feng, W. Yao, and Q. Wang, “Hierarchical Porous Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Phosphorus Ternary Doped Hollow Biomass Carbon Spheres for High-Speed and Long-Life Potassium Storage,” Carbon Energy 4, no. 1 (2021): 45-59.

[317] J. Kim, J. Park, J. Lee, W. G. Lim, C. Jo, and J. Lee, “Biomass-Derived P, N Self-Doped Hard Carbon as Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalyst and Anode Material for Seawater Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 22 (2021): 2010882.

[318] H. Liu, M. Baumann, H. Moon, et al., “Life Cycle Assessment of Bio-Based Hard Carbon for Sodium-Ion Batteries Across Different Production Scales,” Chemical Engineering Journal 495 (2024): 153410.

[319] F. Li, R. Mei, N. Wang, et al., “Regulating the Closed Pore Structure of Biomass-Derived Hard Carbons Towards Enhanced Sodium Storage,” Carbon 230 (2024): 119556.

[320] M. Liu, Z. Lei, Q. Ke, et al., “Regulation of Hydrogen Evolution Performance of Titanium Oxide-Carbon Composites at High Current Density With a Ti-O Hybrid Orbital,” Carbon Energy 4, no. 3 (2022): 480-490.

[321] J. Tian, Y. Hu, W. Lu, et al., “Dealloying of an Amorphous Ticuru Alloy Results in a Nanostructured Electrocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 8 (2023): e322.

[322] B. Guo, X. Wen, L. Xu, et al., “Noble Metal Phosphides: Robust Electrocatalysts Toward Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Small Methods 8 (2023): 2301469.

[323] Z. Liu, J. Ai, M. Sun, et al., “Phosphorous-Doped Graphite Layers With Outstanding Electrocatalytic Activities for the Oxygen and Hydrogen Evolution Reactions in Water Electrolysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 12 (2020): 1910741.

[324] A. Arora, P. Oswal, A. Datta, and A. Kumar, “Complexes of Metals With Organotellurium Compounds and Nanosized Metal Tellurides for Catalysis, Electrocatalysis and Photocatalysis,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 459 (2022): 214406.

[325] J. Feng, X. Wang, and H. Pan, “In-Situ Reconstruction of Catalyst in Electrocatalysis,” Advanced Materials 36 (2024): 2411688.

[326] H. Jia, L. Meng, Y. Lu, et al., “Boosting the Efficiency of Electrocatalytic Water Splitting via in Situ Grown Transition Metal Sulfides: A Review,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12 (2024): 28595-28617.

[327] Y. Lee, W. Jeong, Y. J. Hwang, et al., “Basics, Developments, and Strategies of Transition Metal Phosphides Toward Electrocatalytic Water Splitting: Beyond Noble Metal Catalysts,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12 (2024): 28574-28594.

[328] Z. J. Zhang, N. Yu, Y. L. Dong, et al., “High Entropy Catalysts in Electrolytic Water Splitting: A Review From Properties to Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 498 (2024): 155736.

[329] D. G. Atinafu, J. Y. Choi, Y. Kang, J. Nam, and S. Kim, “Thermochemical Transformation of Biowaste for Encapsulation Technology and Enabling a Circular Economy,” Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024): 104468.

[330] Q. Zhang, W. Guo, Y. Yang, et al., “Ru Decorated Natural Cellulose Nanofiber-Derived Carbon Aerogel for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution in Alkaline Seawater,” Renewable Energy 227 (2024): 120468.

[331] N. Wei, S. Zhang, X. Yao, et al., “Precise Electronically Modulated Mn Doped Nickel Iron Phosphate With P, N Codoped Carbon Decorated P-Doped Carbonized Bacterial Cellulose for Efficient Electrocatalytic Glucose Conversion Coupled With H₂ Generation,” Separation and Purification Technology 343 (2024): 127178.

[332] J. Li, T. Tan, Y. Xie, et al., “Bimetal-Mof and Bacterial Cellulose-Derived Three-Dimensional N-Doped Carbon Sheets Loaded Co/Cofe Nanoparticles Wrapped Graphite Carbon Supported on Porous Carbon Nanofibers: An Efficient Multifunctional Electrocatalyst for Zn-Air Batteries and Overall Water Splitting,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 640 (2023): 78-90.

[333] J. Liang, H. Li, L. Chen, et al., “Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Performance Using Lignin-Assisted Chestnut Shell Carbon-Loaded Molybdenum Disulfide,” Industrial Crops and Products 193 (2023): 116214.

[334] J. Li, Q. Wang, W. Zhang, K. Zhang, and D. Shen, “A Facile Preparation Strategy for Lignin-Based Carbon Encapsulate Cobalt/Cobalt Phosphides Heterojunctions for Boosting Acidic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 60 (2024): 909-916.

[335] H. Li, W. Ma, X. Ma, M. Guo, and G. Li, “Multifunctional Salt-Assisted Construction of Lignin-Derived Ru-Co Bimetal/Carbon Composites With Rich Nanointerface for Electrocatalytic Water Splitting,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 10, no. 49 (2022): 16214-16224.

[336] Q. Wang, J. Zhao, X. Yang, et al., “Tuning the Electronic Metal-Carbon Interactions in Lignin-Based Carbon-Supported Ruthenium-Based Electrocatalysts for Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution Reactions,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 664 (2024): 251-262.

[337] L. Hu, Q. Shen, X. Yang, et al., “Ultrafine Ruthenium-Embedded P-Doped Carbon Materials as Bifunctional Catalysts for Solar-Assistant Water Splitting,” Energy & Fuels 37, no. 3 (2023): 2394-2400.

[338] S. Wang, X. Ning, X. Liu, et al., “Ruthenium Co-Anchored by Nitrogen and Oxygen on Lignin Derived Carbon for High-Efficient Hydrogen Evolution,” Carbon 217 (2024): 118611.

[339] Y. Zhou, Y. Leng, W. Zhou, et al., “Sulfur and Nitrogen Self-Doped Carbon Nanosheets Derived From Peanut Root Nodules as High-Efficiency Non-Metal Electrocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Nano Energy 16 (2015): 357-366.

[340] X. Wang, Y. Fei, J. Chen, et al., “Directionally In Situ Self-Assembled, High-Density, Macropore-Oriented, Cop-Impregnated, 3D Hierarchical Porous Carbon Sheet Nanostructure for Superior Electrocatalysis in the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Small 18, no. 2 (2022): 2103866.

[341] Y. Qin, Y. Chen, X. Zeng, et al., “MoNi₄-Nio Heterojunction Encapsulated in Lignin-Derived Carbon for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Green Energy & Environment 8, no. 6 (2023): 1728-1736.

[342] M. Ahmad, J. Chen, J. Liu, et al., “Metal-Organic Framework-Based Single-Atom Electro-/Photocatalysts: Synthesis, Energy Applications, and Opportunities,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 1 (2024): e382.

[343] H. Hou, G. Shao, Y. Wang, W. Y. Wong, and W. Yang, “Insights on Advanced Substrates for Controllable Fabrication of Photoanodes Toward Efficient and Stable Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 4 (2024): e373.

[344] K. Zhang and R. Zou, “Advanced Transition Metal-Based OER Electrocatalysts: Current Status, Opportunities, and Challenges,” Small 17, no. 37 (2021): 2100129.

[345] Z. Chen, Q. Fan, J. Zhou, et al., “Toward Understanding the Formation Mechanism and OER Catalytic Mechanism of Hydroxides by In Situ and Operando Techniques,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 51 (2023): e202309293.

[346] X. Wang, H. Zhong, S. Xi, W. S. V. Lee, and J. Xue, “Understanding of Oxygen Redox in the Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 50 (2022): e2107956.

[347] H. Li, Y. Lin, J. Duan, Q. Wen, Y. Liu, and T. Zhai, “Stability of Electrocatalytic OER: From Principle to Application,” Chemical Society Reviews 53 (2024): 10709-10740.

[348] T. E. Jones, D. Teschner, and S. Piccinin, “Toward Realistic Models of the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Chemical Reviews 124, no. 15 (2024): 9136-9223.

[349] T. Liu, J. Lu, Z. Chen, et al., “Advances, Mechanisms and Applications in Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalysis of Gold-Driven,” Chemical Engineering Journal 496 (2024): 153719.

[350] A. Shahzad, F. Zulfiqar, and M. Arif Nadeem, “Cobalt Containing Bimetallic ZIFs and Their Derivatives as OER Electrocatalysts: A Critical Review,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 477 (2023): 214925.

[351] H. Yu, J. Ke, and Q. Shao, “Two Dimensional Ir-Based Catalysts for Acidic OER,” Small 19, no. 48 (2023): 2304307.

[352] M. A. Belgami, A. Patra, S. M. Jeong, and C. S. Rout, “Exploring the Synergy of Magnetism and Electrocatalysis: A Comprehensive Review on Mechanisms, Recent Developments and Future Perspectives,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 36 (2024): 24005-24040.

[353] H. Jiang, R. Luo, Y. Li, and W. Chen, “Recent Advances in Solid-Liquid-Gas Three-Phase Interfaces in Electrocatalysis for Energy Conversion and Storage,” EcoMat 4, no. 4 (2022): e12199.

[354] B. R. Anne, J. Kundu, M. K. Kabiraz, J. Kim, D. Cho, and S. I. Choi, “A Review on MXene as Promising Support Materials for Oxygen Evolution Reaction Catalysts,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 51 (2023): 2306100.

[355] S. Anantharaj, S. Kundu, and S. Noda, “The Fe Effect”: A Review Unveiling the Critical Roles of Fe in Enhancing OER Activity of Ni and Co Based Catalysts,” Nano Energy 80 (2021): 105514.

[356] A. Karmakar, K. Karthick, S. S. Sankar, S. Kumaravel, R. Madhu, and S. Kundu, “A Vast Exploration of Improvising Synthetic Strategies for Enhancing the OER Kinetics of LDH Structures: A Review,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 9, no. 3 (2021): 1314-1352.

[357] W. Zhang, K. Wang, F. Lin, et al., “Assembled RhRuFe Trimetallene for Water Electrolysis,” Small Methods 8 (2024): 2400336.

[358] M. Xiao, J. Liu, R. Li, et al., “Rapid Conversion from Alloy Nanoparticles to Oxide Nanowires: Strain Wave-Driven Ru-O-Mn Collaborative Catalysis for Durable Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Small 20 (2024): 2400754.

[359] X. Lin, D. Chen, X. Qiu, et al., “Lignin-Metal Supramolecular Framework Strategy of Self-Healing Carbon-Coated CoRu Alloy Nanocatalyst for Efficient Overall Water Splitting,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 32 (2024): 2303442.

[360] L. Y. Z. Xiong, B. W. Liu, L. Du, Y. K. Zhou, X. L. Lin, and H. Wang, “Bimetallic NiCoP Catalysts Anchored on Phosphorus-Doped Lignin-Based Carbon for Robust Oxygen Evolution Performance,” Rare Metals 43, no. 7 (2024): 3084-3095.

[361] J. Liu, J. Zhang, H. Zhou, et al., “Lignin-Derived Carbon-Supported MoC-FeNi Heterostructure as Efficient Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 629 (2023): 822-831.

[362] X. Zhong, J. Liu, B. Liu, X. Wang, and X. Lin, “Lignin-Assisted Electronic Modulation on NiSe/FeO_x Heterointerface for Boosting Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 275 (2024): 133509.

[363] D. Liu, Z. Qian, Y. Li, Y. Luo, C. Liu, and J. Cui, “N, B, F-Engineered Nanocellulose-Cornstalks Aerogels for High-Performance ORR/OEr Materials,” Advanced Sustainable Systems 8, no. 7 (2024): 2300594.

[364] P. Yang, E. Li, F. Xiao, et al., “Nanostructure Fe-Co-B/Bacterial Cellulose Based Carbon Nanofibers: An Extremely Efficient Electrocatalyst Toward Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47, no. 26 (2022): 12953-12963.

[365] F. Xiao, P. He, P. Yang, et al., “Nickel-Iron Bimetallic Sulfides Nanosheets Anchored on Bacterial Cellulose Based Carbon Nanofiber for Enhanced Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 938 (2023): 168573.

[366] C. Tian, M. Zhang, W. Yan, et al., “Tailoring Cr Doped NiFeP Nanoparticles Embedded in 3D Cellulose Nanofibrils Carbon Architecture for Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 79 (2023): 30653-30663.

[367] Z. Chen, H. Lai, S. Qiu, et al., “Zn, N Co-Doped Carbon With Hierarchical Pores from Cellulose/ZIF Composite for Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Industrial Crops and Products 222 (2024): 119579.

[368] I. Ahmed, S. G. Dastider, R. Biswas, A. Roy, K. Mondal, and K. K. Haldar, “Co₃O₄/WO₃/C Nanorods With Porous Structures as High-Performance Electrocatalysts for Water Splitting,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 7, no. 4 (2024): 4035-4050.

[369] K. Zeng, X. Zheng, C. Li, et al., “Recent Advances in Non-Noble Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysts Toward Large-Scale Production,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 27 (2020): 2000503.

[370] H. Xu, H. Shang, C. Wang, and Y. Du, “Surface and Interface Engineering of Noble-Metal-Free Electrocatalysts for Efficient Overall Water Splitting,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 418 (2020): 213374.

[371] L. Peng, L. Shang, T. Zhang, and G. I. N. Waterhouse, “Recent Advances in the Development of Single-Atom Catalysts for Oxygen Electrocatalysis and Zinc-Air Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 48 (2020): 2003018.

[372] X. Lin, L. Xue, B. Liu, et al., “Lignosulfonate-Assisted in Situ Synthesis of Co₉S₈-Ni₃S₂ Heterojunctions Encapsulated By S/N Co-Doped Biochar for Efficient Water Oxidation,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 644 (2023): 295-303.

[373] J. Liu, L. Wu, D. Chen, et al., “Regulation Engineering of Lignin-Derived N-Doped Carbon-Supported FeNi Alloy Particles Towards Efficient Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution,” Chemical Engineering Science 285 (2024): 119596.

[374] L. Liu, X. Rao, S. Zhang, and J. Zhang, “Insight into Synergy for Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysis of Iron-Nitrogen-Carbon,” Chem 10, no. 7 (2024): 1994-2030.

[375] H. S. Wroblowa, C. Yen-Chi-Pan, and G. Razumney, “Electroreduction of Oxygen,” Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 69, no. 2 (1976): 195-201.

[376] Y. Xu, Z. Sun, S. Fan, et al., “From Structure to Function: MOF-Based and COF-Based Catalysts for Efficient Electrocatalytic H₂O₂ Production via 2E⁻ ORR,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 40 (2024): 27180-27205.

[377] K. Chae, N. A. R. C. Mohamad, J. Kim, et al., “The Promise of Chiral Electrocatalysis for Efficient and Sustainable Energy Conversion and Storage: A Comprehensive Review of the CISS Effect and Future Directions,” Chemical Society Reviews 53, no. 18 (2024): 9029-9058.

[378] Y. Tong, L. Wang, F. Hou, S. X. Dou, and J. Liang, “Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction to Produce Hydrogen Peroxide: Rational Design From Single-Atom Catalysts to Devices,” Electrochemical Energy Reviews 5, no. 3 (2022): 7.

[379] T. Matthews, S. P. Mbokazi, T. H. Dolla, et al., “Electrocatalyst Performances in Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells: Defect Engineering Protocols, Electrocatalytic Pathways, Key Parameters for Improvement, and Breakthroughs on the Horizon,” Small Science 4, no. 1 (2024): 2300057.

[380] Y. Cheng, H. Wang, T. Qian, and C. Yan, “Interfacial Engineering of Carbon-Based Materials for Efficient Electrocatalysis: Recent Advances and Future,” EnergyChem 4, no. 3 (2022): 100074.

[381] G. Wang, S. Jia, H. Gao, et al., “The Action Mechanisms and Structures Designs of F-Containing Functional Materials for High Performance Oxygen Electrocatalysis,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 76 (2023): 377-397.

[382] A. Dessalle, J. Quílez-Bermejo, V. Fierro, F. Xu, and A. Celzard, “Recent Progress in the Development of Efficient Biomass-Based Orr Electrocatalysts,” Carbon 203 (2023): 237-260.

[383] L. Lu, H. Zheng, Y. Li, Y. Zhou, and B. Fang, “Ligand-Free Synthesis of Noble Metal Nanocatalysts for Electrocatalysis,” Chemical Engineering Journal 451 (2023): 138668.

[384] W. Song, C. Xiao, J. Ding, et al., “Review of Carbon Support Coordination Environments for Single Metal Atom Electrocatalysts (SACS),” Advanced Materials 36, no. 1 (2024): 2301477.

[385] Y. Zhou, R. Abazari, J. Chen, et al., “Bimetallic Metal-Organic Frameworks and MOF-Derived Composites: Recent Progress on Electro- and Photoelectrocatalytic Applications,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 451 (2022): 214264.

[386] K. Zhang, C. Wang, F. Gao, et al., “Recent Progress in Ultrafine 3D Pd-Based Nanocubes With Multiple Structures for Advanced Fuel Cells Electrocatalysis,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 472 (2022): 214775.

[387] D. Tian, S. R. Denny, K. Li, H. Wang, S. Kattel, and J. G. Chen, “Density Functional Theory Studies of Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides as Electrocatalysts,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 22 (2021): 12338-12376.

[388] Z. Lu, W. Gong, J. Chen, et al., “Molten Salt-Assisted Synthesis of Ferric Oxide/M-N-C Nanosheet Electrocatalysts for Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Small Methods 8 (2024): 2401278.

[389] U. Sajjad, A. Sarapuu, J. C. Douglin, et al., “Lignin-Derived Precious Metal-Free Electrocatalysts for Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Application,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 12 (2024): 9224-9234.

[390] Y. Han, Z. Ma, X. Wang, and G. Sun, “Fabrication of N and S Co-Doped Lignin-Based Porous Carbon Aerogels Loaded With FeCo Alloys and Their Application to Oxygen Evolution and Reduction Reactions in Zn-Air Batteries,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 273 (2024): 132961.

[391] Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, Y. Li, J. Wang, S. Kawi, and Q. Zhong, “FeCo Alloy/N, S Co-Doped Carbon Aerogel Derived From Directional-Casting Cellulose Nanofibers for Rechargeable Liquid Flow and Flexible Zn-Air Batteries,” Nano Research 16, no. 5 (2023): 6870-6880.

[392] D. Jiang, H. Chen, H. Xie, et al., “Fe, N, S Co-Doped Cellulose Paper Carbon Fibers as an Air-Cathode Catalyst for Microbial Fuel Cells,” Environmental Research 221 (2023): 115308.

[393] L. Zhang, J. Yuan, Q. Xu, F. Zhang, Q. Sun, and H. Xie, “Noble-Metal-Free Co-N-C Catalyst Derived From Cellulose-Based Poly(Ionic Liquid)S for Highly Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 242 (2023): 125110.

[394] X. Zhao, X. Maimaitiyiming, A. Sawut, and Z. Kuerban, “Fabrication of Biocarbon Catalyst for ORR by Modulating the Cellulose Fraction of Wheat Stalk,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 77 (2024): 1268-1275.

[395] D. Deng, N. Wei, S. Wu, et al., “Deep Eutectic Solvent and Molten Salt-Assisted Construction of Wheat Straw-Derived N/O Co-Doped Porous Carbon for Flexible Zinc-Air Batteries,” Chemsuschem 17 (2024): e202401223.

[396] D. Taxi, S. Shao, X. Maimaitiyiming, et al., “Biomass Carbon With Defective Structures as Effective ORR Catalyst for DMFC,” Separation and Purification Technology 356 (2025): 129775.

[397] J. Wang, J. Kim, S. Choi, H. Wang, and J. Lim, “A Review of Carbon-Supported Nonprecious Metals as Energy-Related Electrocatalysts,” Small Methods 4, no. 10 (2020): 2000621.

[398] A. Byeon, W. C. Yun, J. M. Kim, and J. W. Lee, “Recent Progress in Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Electrocatalysts for the Two-Electron Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Chemical Engineering Journal 456 (2023): 141042.

[399] M. Du, D. Li, S. Liu, and J. Yan, “Practical Classification of Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reactions: Optimization Strategies and Mechanistic Analysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 29 (2023): 2301527.

[400] Y. Ma, S. You, B. Jing, et al., “Biomass Pectin-Derived N, S-Enriched Carbon With Hierarchical Porous Structure as a Metal-Free Catalyst for Enhancing Bio-Electricity Generation,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 44, no. 31 (2019): 16624-16638.

[401] H. Wang, X. Kong, W. Zhang, et al., “Exploiting Enzymes to Optimize the pH-Universal Electrocatalytic ORR Performance of Biomass-Based Nanoporous Carbons,” New Journal of Chemistry 47, no. 28 (2023): 13193-13204.

[402] T. Li, Y. Liu, Y. Huang, et al., “Carbon Fiber Film With Multi-Hollow Channels to Expedite Oxygen Electrocatalytic Reaction Kinetics for Flexible Zn-Air Battery,” Small 20 (2024): 2311675.

[403] C. Zhang, W. Liu, M. Song, et al., “Pyranoid-O-Dominated Graphene-Like Nanocarbon for Two-Electron Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 307 (2022): 121173.

[404] K. Chen, S. Kim, M. Je, et al., “Ultrasonic Plasma Engineering Toward Facile Synthesis of Single-Atom M-N₄/N-Doped Carbon (M = Fe, Co) as Superior Oxygen Electrocatalyst in Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 13, no. 1 (2021): 60.

[405] J. Han, H. Bao, J. Q. Wang, et al., “3D N-Doped Ordered Mesoporous Carbon Supported Single-Atom Fe-N-C Catalysts With Superior Performance for Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Zinc-Air Battery,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 280 (2021): 119411.

[406] D. Wu, Z. Zhuo, Y. Song, et al., “Synergistic Spin-Valence Catalysis Mechanism in Oxygen Reduction Reactions on Fe-N-C Single-Atom Catalysts,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 25 (2023): 13502-13509.

[407] X. Wang, H. Zhu, C. Yang, J. Lu, L. Zheng, and H. P. Liang, “Mesoporous Carbon Promoting the Efficiency and Stability of Single Atomic Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Carbon 191 (2022): 393-402.

[408] S. Hu, W. Ni, D. Yang, et al., “Fe₃O₄ Nanoparticles Encapsulated in Single-Atom Fe-N-C Towards Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction: Effect of the Micro and Macro Pores,” Carbon 162 (2020): 245-255.

[409] B. Zhao, D. Xue, P. Yuan, et al., “Optimizing Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction by Adjacent C-O-C Structure-Driven Charge Separation on FeN₄ Active Sites,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 324 (2023): 122251.

[410] J. P. Zehr and D. G. Capone, “Changing Perspectives in Marine Nitrogen Fixation,” Science 368, no. 6492 (2020): eaay9514.

[411] S. Burén, E. Jiménez-Vicente, C. Echavarri-Erasun, and L. M. Rubio, “Biosynthesis of Nitrogenase Cofactors,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 12 (2020): 4921-4968.

[412] Y. Fu, Y. Liao, P. Li, et al., “Layer Structured Materials for Ambient Nitrogen Fixation,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 460 (2022): 214468.

[413] Y. Tanabe and Y. Nishibayashi, “Comprehensive Insights Into Synthetic Nitrogen Fixation Assisted By Molecular Catalysts Under Ambient or Mild Conditions,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 8 (2021): 5201-5242.

[414] Y. Yang, W. Zhang, X. Tan, K. Jiang, S. Zhai, and Z. Li, “Atomic-Level Reactive Sites for Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction to Ammonia Under Ambient Conditions,” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 489 (2023): 215196.

[415] Z. Huang, M. Rafiq, A. R. Woldu, Q. X. Tong, D. Astruc, and L. Hu, “Recent Progress in Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction to Ammonia (NRR),” Coordination Chemistry Reviews 478 (2023): 214981.

[416] M. A. Ahsan, T. He, J. C. Noveron, K. Reuter, A. R. Puentesantiago, and R. Luque, “Low-Dimensional Heterostructures for Advanced Electrocatalysis: An Experimental and Computational Perspective,” Chemical Society Reviews 51, no. 3 (2022): 812-828.

[417] B. Chang, H. Zhang, S. Sun, and G. Zhang, “Strategies to Achieve Effective Nitrogen Activation,” Carbon Energy 6 (2024): e491.

[418] J. Mu, X. Gao, T. Yu, et al, “Ambient Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis: From Theoretical Guidance to Catalyst Design,” Advanced Science 11 (2024): 2308979.

[419] Z. Yan, M. Ji, J. Xia, and H. Zhu, “Recent Advanced Materials for Electrochemical and Photoelectrochemical Synthesis of Ammonia From Dinitrogen: One Step Closer to a Sustainable Energy Future,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 11 (2020): 1902020.

[420] Q. Wang, Y. Lei, D. Wang, and Y. Li, “Defect Engineering in Earth-Abundant Electrocatalysts for CO₂ and N₂ Reduction,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 6 (2019): 1730-1750.

[421] R. Zhao, H. Xie, L. Chang, et al., “Recent Progress in the Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis Under Ambient Conditions,” EnergyChem 1, no. 2 (2019): 100011.

[422] L. Li, C. Tang, H. Jin, K. Davey, and S. Z. Qiao, “Main-Group Elements Boost Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation,” Chem 7, no. 12 (2021): 3232-3255.

[423] S. Chen, X. Liu, J. Xiong, L. Mi, X. Z. Song, and Y. Li, “Defect and Interface Engineering in Metal Sulfide Catalysts for the Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction Reaction: A Review,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 10, no. 13 (2022): 6927-6949.

[424] Y. Ying, K. Fan, J. Qiao, and H. Huang, “Rational Design of Atomic Site Catalysts for Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction Reaction: One Step Closer to Optimum Activity and Selectivity,” Electrochemical Energy Reviews 5, no. 3 (2022): 6.

[425] J. Zhao, G. Ren, and X. Meng, “Recent Advances on MOFs for Photocatalytic and Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction to Produce Ammonia,” Nano Energy 130 (2024): 110109.

[426] G. Hai, Z. Fu, X. Liu, and X. Huang, “Recent Progress in Electrocatalytic Reduction of Nitrogen to Ammonia,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 60 (2024): 107-127.

[427] D. Yang, J. Li, M. Xiao, C. Liu, W. Xing, and J. Zhu, “Atomically Dispersed Metal Catalysts Towards Nitrogen Reduction for Ammonia: From Homogeneous to Heterogeneous,” Chemical Engineering Journal 468 (2023): 143776.

[428] Y. Ruan, Z. H. He, Z. T. Liu, et al., “Emerging Two-Dimensional Materials for the Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction Reaction to Yield Ammonia,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 42 (2023): 22590-22607.

[429] H. Zhu, X. Ren, X. Yang, X. Liang, A. Liu, and G. Wu, “Fe-Based Catalysts for Nitrogen Reduction Toward Ammonia Electrosynthesis under Ambient Conditions,” SusMat 2, no. 3 (2022): 214-242.

[430] Y. H. Wang, J. H. Dong, Z. Tan, X. F. Wang, and X. Z. Song, “The Journey of Iron-Based Electrocatalytic Materials for Nitrogen Reduction Reaction: From Current Status to Future Prospects,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 21 (2023): 11048-11077.

[431] X. Liang, H. Zhu, X. Yang, et al., “Recent Advances in Designing Efficient Electrocatalysts for Electrochemical Nitrate Reduction to Ammonia,” Small Structures 4, no. 6 (2023): 2200202.

[432] S. Ghoshal, A. Ghosh, P. Roy, B. Ball, A. Pramanik, and P. Sarkar, “Recent Progress in Computational Design of Single-Atom/Cluster Catalysts for Electrochemical and Solar-Driven N₂ Fixation,” ACS Catalysis 12, no. 24 (2022): 15541-15575.

[433] Y. Yang, L. Zhang, Z. Hu, et al., “The Crucial Role of Charge Accumulation and Spin Polarization in Activating Carbon-Based Catalysts for Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 11 (2020): 4525-4531.

[434] C. Hu, R. Paul, Q. Dai, and L. Dai, “Carbon-Based Metal-Free Electrocatalysts: From Oxygen Reduction to Multifunctional Electrocatalysis,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 21 (2021): 11785-11843.

[435] W. Zhang, S. Zhan, Q. Qin, et al., “Electrochemical Generation of Catalytically Active Edge Sites in C₂N-Type Carbon Materials for Artificial Nitrogen Fixation,” Small 18, no. 42 (2022): 2204116.

[436] C. Li, S. Zhang, Z. Ding, H. Zhou, G. Wang, and H. Zhang, “Copper Nanocrystals Anchored on an O-Rich Carbonized Corn Gel for Nitrogen Electroreduction to Ammonia,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 7, no. 19 (2020): 3555-3560.

[437] J. Tian, H. Bai, J. Cai, Y. Xiao, D. Talifu, and A. Abulizi, “Efficient Electrochemical Reduction of Nitrogen From Biomass Doped Boron and Nitrogen Under Ambient Conditions,” Surface and Interface Analysis 55, no. 3 (2022): 176-183.

[438] T. S. Bui, E. C. Lovell, R. Daiyan, and R. Amal, “Defective Metal Oxides: Lessons From CO₂RR and Applications in NO_xRR,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 28 (2023): 2205814.

[439] H. M. A. Sharif, M. Rashad, I. Hussain, A. Abbas, O. F. Aldosari, and C. Li, “Green Energy Harvesting from CO₂ and NO_x By Mxene Materials: Detailed Historical and Future Prospective,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 344 (2024): 123585.

[440] A. S. Varela, W. Ju, and P. Strasser, “Molecular Nitrogen-Carbon Catalysts, Solid Metal Organic Framework Catalysts, and Solid Metal/Nitrogen-Doped Carbon (MNC) Catalysts for the Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 30 (2018): 1703614.

[441] P. Anand, M. S. Wong, and Y. P. Fu, “Perovskite Oxide Composites for Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalytic Activity and Zinc-Air Battery Application—A Mini-Review,” Energy Storage Materials 58 (2023): 362-380.

[442] S. Xin, S. Huo, C. Zhang, et al., “Coupling Nitrogen/Oxygen Self-Doped Biomass Porous Carbon Cathode Catalyst With CuFeO₂/Biochar Particle Catalyst for the Heterogeneous Visible-Light Driven Photo-Electro-Fenton Degradation of Tetracycline,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 305 (2022): 121024.

[443] J. Cui, J. Liu, X. Chen, et al., “Ganoderma Lucidum-Derived Erythrocyte-Like Sustainable Materials,” Carbon 196 (2022): 70-77.

[444] A. Samage, M. Halakarni, H. Yoon, and N. Sanna Kotrappanavar, “Sustainable Conversion of Agricultural Biomass Waste Into Electrode Materials With Enhanced Energy Density for Aqueous Zinc-Ion Hybrid Capacitors,” Carbon 219 (2024): 118774.

[445] P. Sun, X. Wang, M. Zhu, N. Ahmad, K. Zhang, and X. Xu, “Nitrogen Self-Doped Metal Free Catalysts Derived from Chitin via One Step Method for Efficient Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction to CO,” Catalysts 13, no. 5 (2023): 904.

[446] F. Wang, H. Zhang, Z. Zhang, Q. Ma, C. Kong, and S. Min, “Carbonized Wood Membrane Decorated With AuPd Alloy Nanoparticles as an Efficient Self-Supported Electrode for Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 607, no. Pt 1 (2022): 312-322.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.