Selective Oxidation Strategies for Cost-Efficient Green Hydrogen Production via Hybrid Water Electrolysis

Abstract

Sustainable hydrogen production is essential for decarbonizing energy and chemical manufacturing; however, conventional water electrolysis is limited by the high thermodynamic and kinetic demands of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Hybrid water electrolysis addresses this challenge by replacing the OER with more favorable organic oxidation reactions (OORs), reducing energy input while valorizing or remediating abundant biomass- and waste-derived feedstocks. This review presents the first unified assessment that integrates techno-economic analysis with mechanistic insight and electrocatalyst design principles to identify the most viable OOR pathways. We evaluate key substrates, including glycerol, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, urea, methanol, and ethanol, and summarize advances in noble and non-noble metal catalysts enabling selective partial oxidation at reduced voltages. The remaining challenges in catalyst stability, product separation, membrane durability, and system integration are critically examined. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive framework for guiding the development and industrial deployment of hybrid electrolyzers for low-carbon, value-added hydrogen production.

Keywords

biomass valorization / electrocatalysis / energy storage / green hydrogen production / sustainability

References

[1] International Energy Agency (IEA). World Energy Outlook 2022 (2022), https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022.

[2] International Energy Agency (IEA). Global Hydrogen Review 2025 (2025), https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2025.

[3] J. Li, Q. Sun, F. Yang, et al., “Expanding the Emissions Trading System Coverage can Increase the Cost Competitiveness of Low-Carbon Ammonia in China,” Communications Earth & Environment 6, no. 1 (2025): 231.

[4] D. B. Agusdinata, W. Liu, H. Eakin, and H. Romero, “Socio-Environmental Impacts of Lithium Mineral Extraction: Towards a Research Agenda,” Environmental Research Letters 13, no. 12 (2018): 123001.

[5] T. Kim, W. Song, D. Y. Son, L. K. Ono, and Y. Qi, “Lithium-Ion Batteries: Outlook on Present, Future, and Hybridized Technologies,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7 (2019): 2942–2964.

[6] A. Manthiram, J. C. Knight, S.-T. Myung, S.-M. Oh, and Y.-K. Sun, “Nickel-Rich and Lithium-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes: Progress and Perspectives,” Advanced Energy Materials 6, no. 1 (2016): 1501010.

[7] D. Openshaw, W. T. Lang, L. Goldstone, J. Wildsmith, B. Freeman, and G. Bagnato, “Hydrogen Storage Methods by Lithium Borohydride,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 69 (2024): 1188–1198.

[8] W. Fang, C. Ding, L. Chen, et al., “'Review of Hydrogen Storage Technologies and the Crucial Role of Environmentally Friendly Carriers,” Energy & Fuels 38, no. 15 (2024): 13539–13564.

[9] T. Noritake, M. Aoki, S. Towata, et al., “Chemical Bonding of Hydrogen in MgH₂,” Applied Physics Letters 81, no. 11 (2002): 2008–2010.

[10] P. Preuster, C. Papp, and P. Wasserscheid, “Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs): Toward a Hydrogen-free Hydrogen Economy,” Accounts of Chemical Research 50, no. 1 (2017): 74–85.

[11] A. Ahmed, Y. Liu, J. Purewal, et al., “Balancing Gravimetric and Volumetric Hydrogen Density in MOFs,” Energy & Environmental Science 10, no. 11 (2017): 2459–2471.

[12] T. Lundblad, M. Taljegard, and F. Johnsson, “Centralized and Decentralized Electrolysis-Based Hydrogen Supply Systems for Road Transportation—A Modeling Study of Current and Future Costs,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 12 (2023): 4830–4844.

[13] P. Atkins and J. de Paula, Atkins′ Physical Chemistry (7th ed.) (Oxford University Press, 2002).

[14] J. Li, “Oxygen Evolution Reaction in Energy Conversion and Storage: Design Strategies Under and Beyond the Energy Scaling Relationship,” Nano-Micro Letters 14, no. 1 (2022): 112.

[15] M. Yu, E. Budiyanto, and H. Tüysüz, “Principles of Water Electrolysis and Recent Progress in Cobalt-, Nickel-, and Iron-Based Oxides for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Angewandte Chemie 134, no. 1 (2022): e202103824.

[16] X. Liu, J. Chi, B. Dong, and Y. Sun, “Recent Progress in Decoupled H₂ and O₂ Production From Electrolytic Water Splitting,” ChemElectroChem 6, no. 8 (2019): 2157–2166.

[17] X. Zhang, X. Wang, T. Sun, M. Wang, J. Zhu, and J. Wang, “Design of Alternative Oxidation Processes for Hybrid Water Electrolysis Systems: Recent Progress and Perspective,” Chemical Communications 61, no. 61 (2025): 11353–11363.

[18] Z. Chen, W. Wei, L. Song, and B. J. Ni, “Hybrid Water Electrolysis: A New Sustainable Avenue for Energy-Saving Hydrogen Production,” Sustainable Horizons 1 (2022): 100002.

[19] L. Du, Y. Sun, and B. You, “Hybrid Water Electrolysis: Replacing Oxygen Evolution Reaction for Energy-Efficient Hydrogen Production and Beyond,” Materials Reports: Energy 1, no. 1 (2021): 100004.

[20] Y. Li, Z. Dang, and P. Gao, “High-Efficiency Electrolysis of Biomass and Its Derivatives: Advances in Anodic Oxidation Reaction Mechanism and Transition Metal-Based Electrocatalysts,” Nano Select 2, no. 5 (2021): 847–864.

[21] Y. Holade, K. Servat, S. Tingry, et al., “Advances in Electrocatalysis for Energy Conversion and Synthesis of Organic Molecules,” ChemPhysChem 18, no. 19 (2017): 2573–2605.

[22] H. Luo, J. Barrio, N. Sunny, et al., “Progress and Perspectives in Photo- and Electrochemical-Oxidation of Biomass for Sustainable Chemicals and Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 43 (2021): 2101180.

[23] T. Kahlstorf, J. N. Hausmann, T. Sontheimer, and P. W. Menezes, “Challenges for Hybrid Water Electrolysis to Replace the Oxygen Evolution Reaction on an Industrial Scale,” Global Challenges 7, no. 7 (2023): 2200242.

[24] Sigma Aldrich, “Glycerol”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigald/g7893.

[25] Y. Kwon, K. J. P. Schouten, and M. T. M. Koper, “Mechanism of the Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol on Polycrystalline Gold and Platinum Electrodes,” ChemCatChem 3, no. 7 (2011): 1176–1185.

[26] Sigma Aldrich, “DL-Glyceraldehyde”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigma/g5001.

[27] Value Market Research., “D-Glyceraldehyde Market Size, Share & Growth Report, 2033,” (2024), https://www.valuemarketresearch.com/report/d-glyceraldehyde-market.

[28] D. Liu, J. C. Liu, W. Cai, et al., “Selective Photoelectrochemical Oxidation of Glycerol to High Value-Added Dihydroxyacetone,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1779.

[29] Sigma Aldrich, “Dihydroxyacetone,” accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/mm/820482.

[30] Business Research Insights, “Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) Market Size, Analysis 2034,” (2025), https://www.businessresearchinsights.com/market-reports/dihydroxyacetone-dha-market-105830.

[31] I. Terekhina, J. White, A. Cornell, and M. Johnsson, “Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Glycerol to Value-Added Compounds on Pd Nanocrystals,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 6, no. 13 (2023): 11211–11220.

[32] Sigma Aldrich, “D-Glyceric Acid”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigma/61786.

[33] QY Research, “Glyceric Acids—Global Market Share and Ranking, Overall Sales and Demand Forecast 2025–2031,” (2025), https://www.qyresearch.com/reports/3572567/glyceric-acid.

[34] Sigma Aldrich, “Tartronic Acid”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sial/86320.

[35] Sigma Aldrich, “Lactic Acid”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sial/252476.

[36] Precedence Research, “Lactic Acid Market Size to Hit Around USD 9.36 Billion by 2034,” (2024), https://www.precedenceresearch.com/lactic-acid-market.

[37] Sigma Aldrich, “Glycolic Acid”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sial/124737.

[38] Grand View Research, “Glycolic Acid Market Size and Share|Industry Report, 2030,” (2024), https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/glycolic-acid-industry.

[39] M. K. Goetz, M. T. Bender, and K.-S. Choi, “Predictive Control of Selective Secondary Alcohol Oxidation of Glycerol on NiOOH,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 5848.

[40] Sigma Aldrich, “Glycolaldehyde Dimer Crystalline”, accessed October 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/g6805.

[41] QY Research, “Glycolaldehyde Market Latest Growth Rate at a CAGR of 4.8%,” (2024), https://www.openpr.com/news/3631506/glycolaldehyde-market-latest-growth-rate-at-a-cagr-of-4-8.

[42] Sigma Aldrich, “Oxalic Acid”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/241172.

[43] Maximize Market Research, “Oxalic Acid Market: Industry Analysis and Forecast (2025–2032) Trends, Statistics, Dynamics, Segmentation by Raw Material, Application and Region,” (2024), https://www.maximizemarketresearch.com/market-report/global-oxalic-acid-market/101012/.

[44] Sigma Aldrich, “Glyoxylic Acid”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/g10601.

[45] Data Insights Market., “Glyoxylic Acid Market Demand and Consumption Trends: Outlook 2025–2033,” (2025), https://www.datainsightsmarket.com/reports/glyoxylic-acid-244131.

[46] Fisher Scientific, “Calcium Mesoxalate Trihydrate”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/calcium-mesoxalate-trihydrate-tci-america/O00765G#mesoxalic%20acid.

[47] M. Simões, S. Baranton, and C. Coutanceau, “Electro-Oxidation of Glycerol at Pd Based Nano-Catalysts for an Application in Alkaline Fuel Cells for Chemicals and Energy Cogeneration,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 93, no. 3 (2010): 354–362.

[48] Fisher Scientific, “Sodium Hydroxypyruvate Hydrate”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/sodium-hydroxypyruvate-hydrate-calc-based-dry-substance-nt-97-0-milliporesigma-supelco/111013975#hydroxypyruvic%20acid.

[49] Sigma Aldrich, “Acetic Acid Glacial”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigald/695092.

[50] Precedence Research, “Acetic Acid Market Size to Hit USD 36.14 Billion by 2034,” (2025), https://www.precedenceresearch.com/acetic-acid-market.

[51] Sigma Aldrich, “Formic Acid”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigald/f0507.

[52] Fortune Business Insights, “Formic Acid Market Size, Share & Analysis | Global Report [2032],” (2024), https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/formic-acid-market-104888.

[53] Sigma Aldrich, “5-Hydroxymethyl-2-Furaldehyde”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/h40807.

[54] D. J. Chadderdon, L. Xin, J. Qi, et al., “Electrocatalytic Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid on Supported Au and Pd Bimetallic Nanoparticles,” Green Chem. 16, no. 8 (2014): 3778–3786.

[55] Sigma Aldrich, “2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/722081.

[56] Data Bridge Market Research, “2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDCA) Market – Global Market Size, Share, and Trends Analysis Report—Industry Overview and Forecast to 2032,” (2024), https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-fdca-market.

[57] Fisher Scientific, “5-Formyl-2-Furancarboxylic Acid”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/5-formyl-2-furancarboxylic-acid-tci-america-2/F03381G.

[58] Fisher Scientific, “5-Hydroxymethyl-2-Furancarboxylic Acid”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/5-hydroxymethyl-2-furanc-250mg/502427760.

[59] Market Research Intellect, “Global 5-Hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxylic Acid Market Analysis, Share & Industry Outlook 2033,” (2025), https://www.marketresearchintellect.com/product/5-hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxylic-acid-market/.

[60] Y. Huo, C. Guo, Y. Zhang, et al., “Realizing Efficient Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural on a Freestanding Ni(OH)₂/Nickel Foam Catalyst,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 63 (2024): 282–291.

[61] Sigma Aldrich, “2,5-Furandicarboxaldehyde”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/aldrich/728373.

[62] Verified Market Reports, “Diformylfuran (DFF) Market Size, Market Overview & Forecast,” (2025), https://www.verifiedmarketreports.com/product/diformylfuran-dff-market/.

[63] Fisher Scientific, “Urea”, accessed January 16, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/urea-99-thermo-scientific/AC424581000#urea.

[64] B. K. Boggs, R. L. King, and G. G. Botte, “Urea Electrolysis: Direct Hydrogen Production From Urine,” Chemical Communications no. 32 (2009): 4859–4861.

[65] Sigma Aldrich, “Methanol”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigald/179337.

[66] M. Li, X. Deng, K. Xiang, et al., “Value-Added Formate Production From Selective Methanol Oxidation as Anodic Reaction to Enhance Electrochemical Hydrogen Cogeneration,” ChemSusChem 13, no. 5 (2020): 914–921.

[67] F. Schwarz, E. Larenz, and A. K. Mechler, “Sustainable Electrochemical Synthesis of Dry Formaldehyde From Anhydrous Methanol,” Green Chemistry 26, no. 8 (2024): 4645–4652.

[68] Fisher Scientific, “Formaldehyde”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/formaldehyde-acs-grade-36-5-w-w-38-0-w-w-labchem-5/LC146501#formaldehyde.

[69] Global Market Insights Inc., “Formaldehyde Market Size, Share & Global Analysis Report—2034,” (2024), accessed October 3, 2025, https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/formaldehyde-market.

[70] H. A. Gasteiger, N. Markovic, P. N. Ross, Jr., and E. J. Cairns, “Methanol Electrooxidation on Well-Characterized Platinum-Ruthenium Bulk Alloys,” Journal of Physical Chemistry 97 (1993): 12020–12029.

[71] Sigma Aldrich, “Ethanol Absolute”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/mm/107017.

[72] I. Kohlhaas, N. Kurig, and R. Palkovits, “Electrochemical Ethanol Oxidation Using RuO₂-Based Catalysts: Suppressing OER and Tailored Switching Between Water Oxidation and Ethanol Oxidation,” ChemElectroChem 11, no. 10 (2024): e202300753.

[73] Fisher Scientific, “Acetaldehyde”, accessed January 17, 2025, https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products/acetaldehyde-99-thermo-scientific-4/AA33244AE#acetaldehyde.

[74] Grand View Research, “Acetaldehyde Market Size and Share | Industry Report, 2030,” (2024), https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/acetaldehyde-market-report.

[75] L. Dai, Q. Qin, X. Zhao, et al., “Electrochemical Partial Reforming of Ethanol Into Ethyl Acetate Using Ultrathin Co₃O₄ Nanosheets as a Highly Selective Anode Catalyst,” ACS Central Science 2, no. 8 (2016): 538–544.

[76] Sigma Aldrich, “Ethyl Acetate”, accessed March 7, 2025, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/IE/en/product/sigald/319902.

[77] Precedence Research, “Ethyl Acetate Market Size to Reach USD 11.79 Billion by 2034,” (2025), https://www.precedenceresearch.com/ethyl-acetate-market.

[78] S. Y. Shen, T. S. Zhao, and Q. X. Wu, “Product Analysis of the Ethanol Oxidation Reaction on Palladium-Based Catalysts in an Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Environment,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 37, no. 1 (2012): 575–582.

[79] M. Ebeling, D. Bongartz, S. Mürtz, R. Palkovits, and A. Mitsos, “Thermodynamic and Economic Potential of Glycerol Oxidation to Replace Oxygen Evolution in Water Electrolysis,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 63, no. 18 (2024): 8250–8260.

[80] S. R. Clough, “Glyceraldehyde.” in Encyclopedia of Toxicology, eds. P. Wexler (Elsevier, 2005). 2nd ed., 448–449.

[81] E. de Jong, H. A. Visser, A. S. Dias, C. Harvey, and G. J. M. Gruter, “The Road to Bring FDCA and PEF to the Market,” Polymers 14, no. 5 (2022): 943.

[82] Y. Yang and T. Mu, “Electrochemical Oxidation of Biomass Derived 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): Pathway, Mechanism, Catalysts and Coupling Reactions,” Green Chemistry 23, no. 12 (2021): 4228–4254.

[83] V. Vedharathinam and G. G. Botte, “Understanding the Electro-Catalytic Oxidation Mechanism of Urea on Nickel Electrodes in Alkaline Medium,” Electrochimica Acta 81 (2012): 292–300.

[84] V. S. Protsenko, “Thermodynamic Aspects of Urea Oxidation Reaction in the Context of Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48, no. 63 (2023): 24207–24211.

[85] R. G. Grim, Z. Huang, M. T. Guarnieri, J. R. Ferrell, L. Tao, and J. A. Schaidle, “Transforming the Carbon Economy: Challenges and Opportunities in the Convergence of Low-Cost Electricity and Reductive CO₂ Utilization,” Energy & Environmental Science 13, no. 2 (2020): 472–494.

[86] Y. Lim, S. Surendran, W. So, et al., “In Situ Decorated Cu₂FeSnS₄ Nanosheet Arrays for Low Voltage Hydrogen Production Through the Ammonia Oxidation Reaction,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 7, no. 22 (2023): 5843–5857.

[87] H. Roh, S. Oh, C. Lim, and K. Yong, “Recent Progress and Challenges in Hybrid Water Electrolysis through Economic Evaluation,” ACS Materials Letters 6, no. 7 (2024): 3080–3089.

[88] C. Batchelor-McAuley, “Defining the Onset Potential,” Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 37 (2023): 101176.

[89] H. J. Kim, Y. Kim, D. Lee, et al., “Coproducing Value-Added Chemicals and Hydrogen With Electrocatalytic Glycerol Oxidation Technology: Experimental and Techno-Economic Investigations,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 5, no. 8 (2017): 6626–6634.

[90] L. Fan, B. Liu, X. Liu, N. Senthilkumar, G. Wang, and Z. Wen, “Recent Progress in Electrocatalytic Glycerol Oxidation,” Energy Technology 9, no. 2 (2021): 2000804.

[91] Office of Energy Policy and New Uses, Office of the Chief Economist, U.S. “Biobased Products Market Potential and Projections Through 2025 (United States Department of Agriculture),” (2008), https://ideas.repec.org/p/ags/usdami/329778.html.

[92] X. Zhang, W. Huang, L. Yu, et al., “Enabling Heterogeneous Catalysis to Achieve Carbon Neutrality: Directional Catalytic Conversion of CO₂ Into Carboxylic Acids,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 3 (2024): e362.

[93] S. Varhade, A. Guruji, C. Singh, et al., “Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction: Commercial Innovations and Prospects,” ChemElectroChem 12, no. 2 (2025): e202400512.

[94] X. Yu and P. G. Pickup, “Recent Advances in Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFC),” Journal of Power Sources 182, no. 1 (2008): 124–132.

[95] X. Han, H. Sheng, C. Yu, et al., “Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Glycerol to Formic Acid by CuCo₂O₄ Spinel Oxide Nanostructure Catalysts,” ACS Catalysis 10, no. 12 (2020): 6741–6752.

[96] M. R. Rizk, M. G. Abd el-Moghny, H. H. Abdelhady, et al., “Tailor-Designed Bimetallic Co/Ni Macroporous Electrocatalyst for Efficient Glycerol Oxidation and Water Electrolysis,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47, no. 75 (2022): 32145–32157.

[97] L. Dong, G. R. Chang, Y. Feng, X. Z. Yao, and X. Y. Yu, “Regulating Ni Site in NiV LDH for Efficient Electrocatalytic Production of Formate and Hydrogen by Glycerol Electrolysis,” Rare Metals 41, no. 5 (2022): 1583–1594.

[98] S. Chibani, C. Michel, F. Delbecq, C. Pinel, and M. Besson, “On the Key Role of Hydroxyl Groups in Platinum-Catalysed Alcohol Oxidation in Aqueous Medium,” Catalysis Science & Technology 3, no. 2 (2013): 339–350.

[99] M. Valter, E. C. dos Santos, L. G. M. Pettersson, and A. Hellman, “Partial Electrooxidation of Glycerol on Close-Packed Transition Metal Surfaces: Insights From First-Principles Calculations,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 124, no. 33 (2020): 17907–17915.

[100] Z. Meng, D. Tran, J. Hjelm, H. H. Kristoffersen, and J. Rossmeisl, “Insight Into Selectivity Differences of Glycerol Electro-Oxidation on Pt(111) and Ag(111),” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 4 (2024): 2455–2462.

[101] Y. Li, X. Wei, R. Pan, et al., “PtAu Alloying-Modulated Hydroxyl and Substrate Adsorption for Glycerol Electrooxidation to C₃ Products,” Energy & Environmental Science 17, no. 12 (2024): 4205–4215.

[102] J. F. Gomes, F. B. C. de Paula, L. H. S. Gasparotto, and G. Tremiliosi-Filho, “The Influence of the Pt Crystalline Surface Orientation on the Glycerol Electro-Oxidation in Acidic Media,” Electrochimica Acta 76 (2012): 88–93.

[103] Y. Kwon and M. T. M. Koper, “Combining Voltammetry With HPLC: Application to Electro-Oxidation of Glycerol,” Analytical Chemistry 82, no. 13 (2010): 5420–5424.

[104] H. Mou, F. Lu, Z. Zhuang, et al., “Glycerol Electrooxidation Over Precision-Synthesized Gold Nanocrystals With Different Surface Facets,” Precision Chemistry 2, no. 3 (2024): 103–111.

[105] J. Li, L. Wu, J. Shu, et al., “Boosting Glycerol Electrooxidation Over Palladium Catalyst Driven by Boron-Incorporation,” Electrochimica Acta 470 (2023): 143344.

[106] S. Li, W. Xie, Y. Song, et al., “Integrated CoPt Electrocatalyst Combined With Upgrading Anodic Reaction to Boost Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Chemical Engineering Journal 437 (2022): 135473.

[107] W. Chen, L. Zhang, L. Xu, et al., “Pulse Potential Mediated Selectivity for the Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Glycerol to Glyceric Acid,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 2420.

[108] T. Chen, C. Guan, F. Yao, et al., “Electrosynthesis of Glyceric Acid From Glycerol Oxidation on Au–CeO₂/CNT Catalyst,” Journal of Rare Earths 43, no. 3 (2025): 453–461.

[109] H. Luo, M. Xu, S. Liu, et al., “Selective Glycerol to Lactic Acid Conversion via a Tandem Effect Between Platinum and Metal Oxides With Abundant Acid Groups,” EES Catalysis 3 (2025): 87–96.

[110] Y. X. Chen, A. Lavacchi, H. A. Miller, et al., “Nanotechnology Makes Biomass Electrolysis More Energy Efficient Than Water Electrolysis,” Nature Communications 5, no. 1 (2014): 4036.

[111] Z. Yu, J. Fang, W. Chen, et al., “Construction of a Uniform Pt–Bi₂O₃ Interface to Enhance Selective Oxidation of Glycerol to Dihydroxyacetone,” Chemical Engineering Science 304 (2025): 121113.

[112] Y. Li, X. Wei, L. Chen, J. Shi, and M. He, “Nickel-Molybdenum Nitride Nanoplate Electrocatalysts for Concurrent Electrolytic Hydrogen and Formate Productions,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 5335.

[113] A. Shubair, M. S. E. Houache, P. Parwani, et al., “Impact of Metal Oxides on the Selectivity of NiBi/C Catalysts for High-Value C-3 Products in Glycerol Electrooxidation Reaction,” Electrochimica Acta 507 (2024): 145045.

[114] X. Liu, Z. Fang, X. Teng, et al., “Paired Formate and H₂ Productions via Efficient Bifunctional Ni-Mo Nitride Nanowire Electrocatalysts,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 72 (2022): 432–441.

[115] Y. Xu, M. Liu, S. Wang, et al., “Integrating Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Generation With Selective Oxidation of Glycerol to Formate Over Bifunctional Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Coated Nickel-Molybdenum-Nitrogen Nanowire Arrays,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 298 (2021): 120493.

[116] Z. He, J. Hwang, Z. Gong, et al., “Promoting Biomass Electrooxidation via Modulating Proton and Oxygen Anion Deintercalation in Hydroxide,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 3777.

[117] H. Kobayashi and A. Fukuoka, “Synthesis and Utilisation of Sugar Compounds Derived From Lignocellulosic Biomass,” Green Chemistry 15, no. 7 (2013): 1740–1763.

[118] G. Yang, E. A. Pidko, and E. J. M. Hensen, “The Mechanism of Glucose Isomerization to Fructose Over Sn-BEA Zeolite: A Periodic Density Functional Theory Study,” ChemSusChem 6, no. 9 (2013): 1688–1696.

[119] G. Grabowski, J. Lewkowski, and R. Skowroński, “The Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural With the Nickel Oxide/Hydroxide Electrode,” Electrochimica Acta 36, no. 13 (1991): 1995.

[120] H. G. Cha and K.-S. Choi, “Combined Biomass Valorization and Hydrogen Production in a Photoelectrochemical Cell,” Nature Chemistry 7, no. 4 (2015): 328–333.

[121] D. Zhao, T. Su, Y. Wang, R. S. Varma, and C. Len, “Recent Advances in Catalytic Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural,” Molecular Catalysis 495 (2020): 111133.

[122] M. L. Krebs, A. Bodach, C. Wang, and F. Schüth, “Stabilization of Alkaline 5-HMF Electrolytes via Cannizzaro Reaction for the Electrochemical Oxidation to FDCA,” Green Chemistry 25, no. 5 (2023): 1797–1802.

[123] Y. Lu, C.-L. Dong, Y.-C. Huang, et al., “Identifying the Geometric Site Dependence of Spinel Oxides for the Electrooxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 43 (2020): 19215–19221.

[124] S. Barwe, J. Weidner, S. Cychy, et al., “Electrocatalytic Oxidation of 5-(Hydroxymethyl)furfural Using High-Surface-Area Nickel Boride,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57, no. 35 (2018): 11460–11464.

[125] S. R. Kubota and K.-S. Choi, “Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDCA) in Acidic Media Enabling Spontaneous FDCA Separation,” ChemSusChem 11, no. 13 (2018): 2138–2145.

[126] S. Takkellapati, T. Li, and M. A. Gonzalez, “An Overview of Biorefinery Derived Platform Chemicals from a Cellulose and Hemicellulose Biorefinery,” Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 20, no. 7 (2018): 1615–1630.

[127] M. Baumgarten and N. Tyutyulkov, “Nonclassical Conducting Polymers: New Approaches to Organic Metals?,” Chemistry - A European Journal 4, no. 6 (1998): 987–989.

[128] A. S. Amarasekara, D. Green, and L. D. Williams, “Renewable Resources Based Polymers: Synthesis and Characterization of 2,5-Diformylfuran–Urea Resin,” European Polymer Journal 45, no. 2 (2009): 595–598.

[129] M. Del Poeta, W. A. Schell, C. C. Dykstra, et al., “Structure-In Vitro Activity Relationships of Pentamidine Analogues and Dication-Substituted Bis-Benzimidazoles as New Antifungal Agents,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 42, no. 10 (1998): 2495–2502.

[130] J. Ma, Z. Du, J. Xu, Q. Chu, and Y. Pang, “Efficient Aerobic Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-Diformylfuran, and Synthesis of a Fluorescent Material,” ChemSusChem 4, no. 1 (2011): 51–54.

[131] K. T. Hopkins, W. D. Wilson, B. C. Bender, et al., “Extended Aromatic Furan Amidino Derivatives as Anti-Pneumocystis carinii Agents,” Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 41, no. 20 (1998): 3872–3878.

[132] A. C. Braisted, J. D. Oslob, W. L. Delano, et al., “Discovery of a Potent Small Molecule IL-2 Inhibitor Through Fragment Assembly,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 125, no. 13 (2003): 3714–3715.

[133] M. Munekata and G. Tamura, “Antitumor Activity of 5-Hydroxy-Methyl-2-Furoic Acid,” Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 45, no. 9 (1981): 2149–2150.

[134] P. H. Chow, C. D. Cox, J. V. Pei, et al., “Inhibition of the Aquaporin-1 Cation Conductance by Selected Furan Compounds Reduces Red Blood Cell Sickling,” Frontiers in Pharmacology 12 (2021): 794791.

[135] G. G. Xu, P. P. Pagare, M. S. Ghatge, et al., “Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Ester and Ether Derivatives of Antisickling Agent 5-HMF for the Treatment of Sickle Cell Disease,” Molecular Pharmaceutics 14, no. 10 (2017): 3499–3511.

[136] E. de Jong, M. A. Dam, L. Sipos, and G. J. M. Gruter, “Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDCA), A Versatile Building Block for a Very Interesting Class of Polyesters,” Biobased Monomers, Polymers, and Materials ACS Symposium Series 1105 (2012): 1–13.

[137] T. Werpy and G. Petersen, “Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass: Volume I-Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas,” (2004), https://doi.org/10.2172/15008859.

[138] K. Loos, R. Zhang, I. Pereira, et al., “A Perspective on PEF Synthesis, Properties, and End-Life,” Frontiers in Chemistry 8 (2020): 585.

[139] G. Z. Papageorgiou, D. G. Papageorgiou, Z. Terzopoulou, and D. N. Bikiaris, “Production of Bio-Based 2,5-Furan Dicarboxylate Polyesters: Recent Progress and Critical Aspects in Their Synthesis and Thermal Properties,” European Polymer Journal 83 (2016): 202–229.

[140] S. Kandasamy, S. P. Samudrala, and S. Bhattacharya, “The Route Towards Sustainable Production of Ethylene Glycol From a Renewable Resource, Biodiesel Waste: A Review,” Catalysis Science & Technology 9, no. 3 (2019): 567–577.

[141] K. R. Vuyyuru and P. Strasser, “Oxidation of Biomass Derived 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Using Heterogeneous and Electrochemical Catalysis,” Catalysis Today 195, no. 1 (2012): 144–154.

[142] L. Chico-Mesa, A. Rodes, R. M. Arán-Ais, and E. Herrero, “Insights Into Catalytic Activity and Selectivity of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Oxidation on Gold Single-Crystal Electrodes,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 3349.

[143] Q. Qin, T. Li, X. Sun, et al., “Unveiling the Gold Facet Effect in Selective Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Hydrogen Production,” Nano Letters 24, no. 51 (2024): 16351–16359.

[144] L. Gálvez-Vázquez, A. Dutta, S. Vesztergom, et al., “HMF Electrooxidation on Robust Nickel-Foam Catalysts: Effect of pH on Electrolysis Performance,” Journal of Catalysis 450 (2025): 116321.

[145] G. R. Zhang, Z. Sun, X. Liu, et al., “Toward Selective Electrooxidation of HMF to FDCA: Suppressing Non-Faradaic Transformations via Low Temperature Electrolysis,” Journal of Catalysis 444 (2025): 116002.

[146] J. Zhang, Y. Shen, Z. Wu, et al., “Efficient Alkaline-Free Electrooxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid Using Electrochemically-Charged Ni_xCo_1-x(OH)₂ as a Redox Mediator,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 13 (2025): e202423109.

[147] W. J. Liu, L. Dang, Z. Xu, H. Q. Yu, S. Jin, and G. W. Huber, “Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural With NiFe Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) Nanosheet Catalysts,” ACS Catalysis 8, no. 6 (2018): 5533–5541.

[148] Y. Xie, Z. Zhou, N. Yang, and G. Zhao, “An Overall Reaction Integrated With Highly Selective Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Efficient Hydrogen Evolution,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 34 (2021): 2170252.

[149] S. Li, S. Wang, Y. Wang, et al., “Doped Mn Enhanced NiS Electrooxidation Performance of HMF Into FDCA at Industrial-Level Current Density,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 24 (2023): 2214488.

[150] N. Zhang, Y. Zou, L. Tao, et al., “Electrochemical Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural on Nickel Nitride/Carbon Nanosheets: Reaction Pathway Determined by In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58, no. 44 (2019): 15895–15903.

[151] B. Liu, S. Xu, M. Zhang, et al., “Electrochemical Upgrading of Biomass-derived 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Furfural Over Oxygen Vacancy-Rich NiCoMn-Layered Double Hydroxides Nanosheets,” Green Chemistry 23, no. 11 (2021): 4034–4043.

[152] S. W. Tatarchuk, J. J. Medvedev, F. Li, Y. Tobolovskaya, and A. Klinkova, “Nickel-Catalyzed Urea Electrolysis: From Nitrite and Cyanate as Major Products to Nitrogen Evolution,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61, no. 39 (2022): e202209839.

[153] W. Ge, L. Lin, S. Q. Wang, et al., “Electrocatalytic Urea Oxidation: Advances in Mechanistic Insights, Nanocatalyst Design, and Applications,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11, no. 28 (2023): 15100–15121.

[154] R. P. Forslund, J. T. Mefford, W. G. Hardin, C. T. Alexander, K. P. Johnston, and K. J. Stevenson, “Nanostructured LaNiO₃ Perovskite Electrocatalyst for Enhanced Urea Oxidation,” ACS Catalysis 6, no. 8 (2016): 5044–5051.

[155] S. K. Geng, Y. Zheng, S. Q. Li, et al., “Nickel Ferrocyanide as a High-Performance Urea Oxidation Electrocatalyst,” Nature Energy 6, no. 9 (2021): 904–912.

[156] L. Zhang, L. Wang, H. Lin, et al., “A Lattice-Oxygen-Involved Reaction Pathway to Boost Urea Oxidation,” Angewandte Chemie 131, no. 47 (2019): 16976–16981.

[157] J. Li, J. Li, T. Liu, et al., “Deciphering and Suppressing Over-Oxidized Nitrogen in Nickel-Catalyzed Urea Electrolysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 51 (2021): 26656–26662.

[158] S. J. Yao, S. K. Wolfson, B. K. Ahn, and C. C. Liu, “Anodic Oxidation of Urea and an Electrochemical Approach to De-Ureation,” Nature 241, no. 5390 (1973): 471–472.

[159] A. E. Bolzan and T. Iwasita, “Determination of the Volatile Products During Urea Oxidation on Platinum by on Line Mass Spectroscopy,” Electrochimica Acta 33, no. 1 (1988): 109–112.

[160] Y. Xu, T. Ren, K. Ren, et al., “Metal-Organic Frameworks-Derived Ru-Doped Co₂P/N-Doped Carbon Composite Nanosheet Arrays as Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution and Urea Oxidation,” Chemical Engineering Journal 408 (2021): 127308.

[161] X. Zheng, J. Yang, P. Li, et al., “Dual-Atom Support Boosts Nickel-Catalyzed Urea Electrooxidation,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 22 (2023): e202217449.

[162] G. Ma, Q. Xue, J. Zhu, et al., “Ultrafine Rh Nanocrystals Decorated Ultrathin NiO Nanosheets for Urea Electro-Oxidation,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 265 (2020): 118567.

[163] L. Yang, R. He, X. Wang, et al., “Self-Supported NiO/CuO Electrodes to Boost Urea Oxidation in Direct Urea Fuel Cells,” Nano Energy 115 (2023): 108714.

[164] N. N. Rao, C. Alex, S. Tomar, et al., “Interface-Driven Electrocatalysis: Highlighting the Role of NdNiO₃-NiO Heterointerface in Urea Electro-Oxidation,” Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy 371 (2025): 125177.

[165] C. Li, Y. Liu, Z. Zhuo, et al., “Local Charge Distribution Engineered by Schottky Heterojunctions Toward Urea Electrolysis,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 27 (2018): 1801775.

[166] C. Wang, H. Lu, Z. Mao, C. Yan, G. Shen, and X. Wang, “Bimetal Schottky Heterojunction Boosting Energy-Saving Hydrogen Production From Alkaline Water via Urea Electrocatalysis,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 21 (2020): 2000556.

[167] Y. Hu, L. Shao, Z. Jiang, et al., “Unveiling the Role of Boron on Nickel-Based Catalyst for Efficient Urea Oxidation Assisted Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 52 (2024): 2411011.

[168] N. Entesari, A. Goeppert, and G. K. S. Prakash, “Renewable Methanol Synthesis Through Single Step Bi-Reforming of Biogas,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 59, no. 22 (2020): 10542–10551.

[169] S. Tuomi, A. Santasalo-Aarnio, P. Kanninen, and T. Kallio, “Hydrogen Production by Methanol–Water Solution Electrolysis With an Alkaline Membrane Cell,” Journal of Power Sources 229 (2013): 32–35.

[170] S. Wasmus and A. Küver, “Methanol Oxidation and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: A Selective Review,” Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 461, no. 1 (1999): 14–31.

[171] J. Li, H. Yu, J. Na, et al., “Recent Advances in Selective Methanol Oxidation Electrocatalysts for the Co-Production of Hydrogen and Value-Added Formate,” Catalysis Science & Technology 14, no. 19 (2024): 5525–5544.

[172] J. Li, “Nickel-Organic Frameworks as Highly Efficient Catalyst for Electrochemical Conversion of CH₃OH Into Formic Acid,” Electrochemistry Communications 146 (2023): 107416.

[173] National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences., “Formaldehyde”, accessed October 15, 2025, https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/formaldehyde.

[174] Y. Wang, S. Zou, and W.-B. Cai, “Recent Advances on Electro-Oxidation of Ethanol on Pt- and Pd-Based Catalysts: From Reaction Mechanisms to Catalytic Materials,” Catalysts 5 (2015): 1507–1534.

[175] S. Guazzi, R. N. Dürr, A. Bogo, et al., “Direct Conversion of Ethanol to Ethyl Acetate by Dynamic Polyoxometalate/Carbon Nanohorn Electrocatalytic Interfaces,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 147, no. 38 (2025): 34840–34848.

[176] National Research Council (US), “Committee on Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance, “Acetaldehyde",” in Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine Contaminants 3 (2009), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219914/.

[177] UK Health Security Agency, “Acetic Acid: General Information”, accessed October 15, 2025, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/acetic-acid-properties-uses-and-incident-management/acetic-acid-general-information.

[178] G. Bélanger, “Anodic Oxidation of Anhydrous Methanol,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 123, no. 6 (1976): 818–823.

[179] F. Colmati, G. Tremiliosi-Filho, E. R. Gonzalez, A. Berná, E. Herrero, and J. M. Feliu, “Surface Structure Effects on the Electrochemical Oxidation of Ethanol on Platinum Single Crystal Electrodes,” Faraday Discuss. 140 (2009): 379–397.

[180] J. Baessler, T. Oliveira, R. Keller, and M. Wessling, “Paired Electrosynthesis of Formic Acid From CO₂ and Formaldehyde From Methanol,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 18 (2023): 6822–6828.

[181] Y. Guo, B. Li, S. Shen, L. Luo, G. Wang, and J. Zhang, “Potential-Dependent Mechanistic Study of Ethanol Electro-oxidation on Palladium,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 14 (2021): 16602–16610.

[182] Y. Qiu, J. Zhang, J. Jin, et al., “Construction of Pd-Zn dual Sites to Enhance the Performance for Ethanol Electro-Oxidation Reaction,” Nature Communications 12, no. 1 (2021): 5273.

[183] K. D. Snell and A. G. Keenan, “Effect of Anions and pH on the Ethanol Electro-Oxidation at a Platinum Electrode,” Electrochimica Acta 27, no. 12 (1982): 1683–1696.

[184] R. Rizo, A. Ferre-Vilaplana, E. Herrero, and J. M. Feliu, “Ethanol Electro-Oxidation Reaction Selectivity on Platinum in Aqueous Media,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 13 (2023): 4960–4968.

[185] M. J. Giz and G. A. Camara, “The Ethanol Electrooxidation Reaction at Pt (111): The Effect of Ethanol Concentration,” Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 625, no. 2 (2009): 117–122.

[186] W. Du, K. E. Mackenzie, D. F. Milano, N. A. Deskins, D. Su, and X. Teng, “Palladium–Tin Alloyed Catalysts for the Ethanol Oxidation Reaction in an Alkaline Medium,” ACS Catalysis 2, no. 2 (2012): 287–297.

[187] C. A. Zhou, S. Wang, K. Ma, L. Song, L. Zheng, and H. Yue, “Membrane-Free Pure H₂ Production Over Single Dispersed Ru-Anchored Pt₃Ni Alloys via Coupling Ethanol Selective Electrooxidation,” Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 321 (2023): 122065.

[188] B. You, X. Liu, X. Liu, and Y. Sun, “Efficient H₂ Evolution Coupled With Oxidative Refining of Alcohols via A Hierarchically Porous Nickel Bifunctional Electrocatalyst,” ACS Catalysis 7, no. 7 (2017): 4564–4570.

[189] M. I. Abdullah, A. Hameed, N. Zhang, M. H. Islam, M. Ma, and B. G. Pollet, “'Ultrasonically Surface-Activated Nickel Foam as a Highly Efficient Monolith Electrode for the Catalytic Oxidation of Methanol to Formate,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 26 (2021): 30603–30613.

[190] B. Zhu, B. Dong, F. Wang, et al., “Unraveling a Bifunctional Mechanism for Methanol-to-Formate Electro-Oxidation on Nickel-Based Hydroxides,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 1686.

[191] W. Wang, Y.-B. Zhu, Q. Wen, et al., “Modulation of Molecular Spatial Distribution and Chemisorption With Perforated Nanosheets for Ethanol Electro-Oxidation,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 28 (2019): 1900528.

[192] H. Qin, Y. Ye, G. Lin, et al., “Regulating the Electrochemical Microenvironment of Ni(OH)₂ by Cr Doping for Highly Efficient Methanol Electrooxidation,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 21 (2024): 16234–16244.

[193] S. Giddey, S. P. S. Badwal, A. Kulkarni, and C. Munnings, “A Comprehensive Review of Direct Carbon Fuel Cell Technology,” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 38, no. 3 (2012): 360–399.

[194] G. Janani, S. Park, S. Surendran, et al., “Strategic Insights Into Prussian Blue Analogues-Based Catalysts: Design and Regulation for Enhanced Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion,” Next Materials 9 (2025): 100930.

[195] M. D. Wilkinson, M. Dumontier, I. J. Aalbersberg, et al., “The FAIR Guiding Principles for Scientific Data Management and Stewardship,” Scientific Data 3, no. 1 (2016): 160018.

[196] R. Sirisangsawang, P. Samaikaew, B. Chotiviriyavanich, and P. Kitchaiya, “Conversion of Sodium Lactate to Lactic acid and Sodium Hydroxide with Cation Exchange Membrane Electrolytic Cell,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 639, no. 1 (2019): 012052.

[197] S. Verma, S. Lu, and P. J. A. Kenis, “Co-Electrolysis of CO₂ and Glycerol as a Pathway to Carbon Chemicals With Improved Technoeconomics Due to Low Electricity Consumption,” Nature Energy 4, no. 6 (2019): 466–474.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Authors. Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.