Phase-Pure 2D Interfacial Perovskite Passivation for Stable and Efficient Photovoltaics

Abstract

Phase-pure two-dimensional (2D) interfacial passivation has emerged as an effective strategy for addressing the intrinsic instability and interfacial defects of three-dimensional (3D) perovskite absorbers. However, conventionally formed 2D layers often suffer from mixed-n phases, heterogeneous quantum-well distributions, and disordered orientation, which impede charge transport, distort energy-level alignment, and accelerate structural degradation. In this review, we elucidate the thermodynamic and kinetic origins of mixed-phase formation and discuss how dimensional heterogeneity adversely impacts carrier dynamics and device stability. We then summarize recent advances in achieving phase-pure 2D perovskite interlayers that enable precise n-value control, favorable crystal orientation, and optimized interfacial energetics. These strategies yield highly ordered 2D/3D heterostructures that effectively suppress ion migration, mitigate non-radiative recombination, and significantly enhance long-term operational stability. Finally, we outline the remaining challenges and emerging opportunities for scalable, phase-pure engineering toward high-efficiency and stable perovskite photovoltaic technologies. Overall, this review provides a unified framework linking phase purity, interfacial ordering, and device stability, offering guidance for the development of next-generation robust perovskite photovoltaics.

Keywords

2D perovskite / dimensionality regulation / interface contact / operational stability / pure phase

References

[1] L. Wu, S. Hu, F. Yang, et al., “Resilience Pathways for Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics Under Temperature Cycling,” Nature Reviews Materials 10, no. 7 (2025): 536–549.

[2] X. Lin, D. Cui, X. Luo, et al., “Efficiency Progress of Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells,” Energy & Environmental Science 13, no. 11 (2020): 3823–3847.

[3] X. Zhang, Y. Luo, X. Wang, et al., “Locking Surface Dimensionality for Endurable Interface in Perovskite Photovoltaics,” Carbon Energy 7, no. 4 (2025): e718.

[4] M.-H. Li, X. Gong, S. Wang, et al., “Facile Hydrogen-Bonding Assisted Crystallization Modulation for Large-Area High-Quality CsPbI₂Br Films and Efficient Solar Cells,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 10 (2024): e202318591.

[5] W. Zhang, G. E. Eperon, and H. J. Snaith, “Metal Halide Perovskites for Energy Applications,” Nature Energy 1, no. 6 (2016): 16048.

[6] M. Pitaro, L. Di Mario, J. Pinna, et al., “Bulk Defects Passivation of Tin Halide Perovskite by Tin Thiocyanate,” Carbon Energy 7, no. 6 (2025): e710.

[7] Y. Dong, R. Yu, G. Su, et al., “Interface Reactive Sputtering of Transparent Electrode for High-Performance Monolithic and Stacked Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 26 (2024): 2312704.

[8] O. M. Bakr and O. F. Mohammed, “Powering up Perovskite Photoresponse,” Science 355, no. 6331 (2017): 1260–1261.

[9] O. Ergen, S. M. Gilbert, T. Pham, et al., “Graded Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Materials 16, no. 5 (2017): 522–525.

[10] L. K. Ono, Y. Qi, and S. Liu, “Progress Toward Stable Lead Halide Perovskite Solar Cells,” Joule 2, no. 10 (2018): 1961–1990.

[11] X. Huo, J. Lv, K. Wang, et al., “Surface Sulfidation Constructing Gradient Heterojunctions for High-Efficiency (Approaching 18%) HTL-Free Carbon-Based Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 12 (2024): e586.

[12] M.-H. Li, X. Ma, J. Fu, et al., ““Molecularly Tailored Perovskite/Poly(3-Hexylthiophene) Interfaces for High-Performance Solar Cells,” Energy & Environmental Science 17, no. 15 (2024): 5513–5520.

[13] X. Dong, X. Li, X. Wang, et al., “Improve the Charge Carrier Transporting in Two-Dimensional Ruddlesden–Popper Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 19 (2024): 2313056.

[14] R. Sun, S. Chen, Q. He, et al., “A Stepwise Melting-Polymerizing Molecule for Hydrophobic Grain-Scale Encapsulated Perovskite Solar Cell,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 3 (2025): 2410395.

[15] H. Zhao, C. Li, Y. Zhang, et al., “Defect Suppression via Tailoring Functionalized Additives for Efficient and Stable CsPbI₃ Perovskite Solar Cells,” Carbon Energy 7 (2025): e70107.

[16] S. Jiang, R. Wang, M. Li, et al., “Synergistic Electrical and Light Management Enables Efficient Monolithic Inorganic Perovskite/Organic Tandem Solar Cells With Over 24% Efficiency,” Energy & Environmental Science 17, no. 1 (2024): 219–226.

[17] J. Zhang, R. Chen, Y. Wu, et al., “Extrinsic Movable Ions in MAPbI₃ Modulate Energy Band Alignment in Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 5 (2018): 1701981.

[18] Y. Wu, F. Xie, H. Chen, et al., “Thermally Stable MAPbI₃ Perovskite Solar Cells With Efficiency of 19.19% and Area Over 1 Cm² Achieved by Additive Engineering,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 28 (2017): 1701073.

[19] R. He, X. Huang, M. Chee, F. Hao, and P. Dong, “Carbon-Based Perovskite Solar Cells: From Single-Junction to Modules,” Carbon Energy 1, no. 1 (2019): 109–123.

[20] G. Su, R. Yu, Y. Dong, et al., “Crystallization Regulation and Defect Passivation for Efficient Inverted Wide-Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells With Over 21% Efficiency,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 4 (2024): 2303344.

[21] D. Lin, T. Shi, H. Xie, et al., “Ion Migration Accelerated Reaction Between Oxygen and Metal Halide Perovskites in Light and Its Suppression by Cesium Incorporation,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 8 (2021): 2002552.

[22] Y. Luo, J. Zhu, X. Yin, et al., “Enhanced Efficiency and Stability of Wide-Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells via Molecular Modification With Piperazinium Salt,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 25 (2024): 2304429.

[23] Q. Wang, J. Zhu, Y. Zhao, et al., “Cross-Layer All-Interface Defect Passivation With Pre-Buried Additive Toward Efficient All-Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 9 (2024): e566.

[24] F. Qiu, M.-H. Li, J. Wu, and J.-S. Hu, “Buried Interface Management via Bifunctional NH₄BF₄ Towards Efficient CsPbI₂Br Solar Cells With a V_oc Over 1.4 V,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 89 (2024): 364–370.

[25] Y. Lin, Y. Liu, S. Chen, et al., “Revealing Defective Nanostructured Surfaces and Their Impact on the Intrinsic Stability of Hybrid Perovskites,” Energy & Environmental Science 14, no. 3 (2021): 1563–1572.

[26] D. Kim, H. J. Jung, I. J. Park, et al., “Efficient, Stable Silicon Tandem Cells Enabled by Anion-Engineered Wide-Bandgap Perovskites,” Science 368, no. 6487 (2020): 155–160.

[27] X. Yao, J. Duan, Y. Zhao, et al., “Stretchable Alkenamides Terminated Ti₃C₂T_x MXenes to Release Strain for Lattice-Stable Mixed-Halide Perovskite Solar Cells With Suppressed Halide Segregation,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 12 (2023): e387.

[28] M.-H. Li, S. Wang, X. Ma, et al., “Hydrogen-Bonding-Facilitated Dimethylammonium Extraction for Stable and Efficient CsPbI₃ Solar Cells With Environmentally Benign Processing,” Joule 7, no. 11 (2023): 2595–2608.

[29] P. Li, Y. Zhang, C. Liang, et al., “Phase Pure 2D Perovskite for High-Performance 2D–3D Heterostructured Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 52 (2018): 1805323.

[30] Y. Zhao, L. Gao, Q. Wang, et al., “Reinforced SnO₂ Tensile-Strength and ‘Buffer-Spring’ Interfaces for Efficient Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 6 (2024): e468.

[31] S. Wang, M.-H. Li, Y. Zhang, et al., “Surface n-Type Band Bending for Stable Inverted CsPbI₃ Perovskite Solar Cells With Over 20% Efficiency,” Energy & Environmental Science 16, no. 6 (2023): 2572–2578.

[32] D. Li, Z. Xing, L. Huang, et al., “Spontaneous Formation of Upper Gradient 2D Structure for Efficient and Stable Quasi-2D Perovskites,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 34 (2021): 2101823.

[33] Y. Zhang, B. Yu, X. Wei, and H. Yu, “Using Post-Treatment Additives for Crystal Modulation and Interface Passivation Enables the Fabrication of Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells in Air,” Advanced Energy Materials 15, no. 7 (2025): 2402990.

[34] M. Zubair, D. Lee, and D. J. Kang, “Harnessing the Power of 2D Materials for Flexible Energy Harvesting Applications,” Carbon Energy 7 (2025): e70083.

[35] M. Jung, T. J. Shin, J. Seo, G. Kim, and S. I. Seok, “Structural Features and Their Functions in Surfactant-Armoured Methylammonium Lead Iodide Perovskites for Highly Efficient and Stable Solar Cells,” Energy & Environmental Science 11, no. 8 (2018): 2188–2197.

[36] M. Wang, Z. Shi, C. Fei, et al., “Ammonium Cations With High pKa in Perovskite Solar Cells for Improved High-Temperature Photostability,” Nature Energy 8, no. 11 (2023): 1229–1239.

[37] S. Wang, X.-Y. Gong, M.-X. Li, M.-H. Li, and J.-S. Hu, “Polymers for Perovskite Solar Cells,” JACS Au 4, no. 9 (2024): 3400–3412.

[38] S. Ahmad, P. Fu, S. Yu, et al., “Dion–Jacobson Phase 2D Layered Perovskites for Solar Cells With Ultrahigh Stability,” Joule 3, no. 3 (2019): 794–806.

[39] G. Chen, Y. Gan, S. Wang, et al., “Dicyandiamide-Driven Tailoring of the n-Value Distribution and Interface Dynamics for High-Performance ACI 2D Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nano-Micro Letters 17, no. 1 (2025): 305.

[40] M.-H. Li, F.-Z. Qiu, S. Wang, Y. Jiang, and J.-S. Hu, “Hole Transporting Materials in Inorganic CsPbI₃−Br Solar Cells: Fundamentals, Criteria and Opportunities,” Materials Today 52 (2022): 250–268.

[41] M.-H. Li, J.-Y. Shao, Y. Jiang, et al., “Electrical Loss Management by Molecularly Manipulating Dopant-Free Poly(3-Hexylthiophene) Towards 16.93% CsPbI₂Br Solar Cells,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 30 (2021): 16388–16393.

[42] A. Mahata, E. Mosconi, D. Meggiolaro, S. Fantacci, and F. De Angelis, “Rationalizing Electron–Phonon Interactions and Hot Carriers Cooling in 2D to 3D Metal Halide Perovskites,” Advanced Energy Materials 15, no. 2 (2025): 2303405.

[43] N. Liu, J. Duan, H. Li, et al., “Columnar Macrocyclic Molecule Tailored Grain Cage to Stabilize Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells With Suppressed Halide Segregation,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 48 (2024): 2402443.

[44] H.-S. Yang, D. Kim, C.-M. Oh, et al., “Understanding the Correlation Between Energy-State Mismatching and Open-Circuit Voltage Loss in Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 5 (2024): e433.

[45] L. Etgar, “The Merit of Perovskite's Dimensionality; Can This Replace the 3D Halide Perovskite?,” Energy & Environmental Science 11, no. 2 (2018): 234–242.

[46] A. Caiazzo, K. Datta, J. Jiang, et al., “Effect of Co-Solvents on the Crystallization and Phase Distribution of Mixed-Dimensional Perovskites,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 42 (2021): 2102144.

[47] K. N'Konou, S. Y. Kim, and N. Y. Doumon, “Multicomponent Organic Blend Systems: A Review of Quaternary Organic Photovoltaics,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 10 (2024): e579.

[48] Y. Xu, S. Gong, Z. Zhang, et al., “Multicomponent Solvent Engineered Spatially Uniform 2D/3D Perovskite Heterojunction for Solar Cells,” ACS Energy Letters 10, no. 4 (2025): 2035–2044.

[49] M.-C. Shih, S. Tan, Y. Lu, et al., “A 2D/3D Heterostructure Perovskite Solar Cell With a Phase-Pure and Pristine 2D Layer,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 17 (2025): 2416672.

[50] J. Kim, J. Park, J. Lim, et al., “Susceptible Organic Cations Enable Stable and Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells,” Joule 9, no. 5 (2025): 101879.

[51] S. Ramakrishnan, B. Chen, X. Zhang, et al., “Phase-Stabilized 2D/3D Hetero-Bilayers via Lattice Matching for Efficient and Stable Inverted Solar Cells,” Joule 9, no. 6 (2025): 101954.

[52] J. Wen, Y. Zhao, P. Wu, et al., “Heterojunction Formed via 3D-to-2D Perovskite Conversion for Photostable Wide-Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 7118.

[53] C. Liang, H. Gu, Y. Xia, et al., “Two-Dimensional Ruddlesden–Popper Layered Perovskite Solar Cells Based on Phase-Pure Thin Films,” Nature Energy 6, no. 1 (2021): 38–45.

[54] T. He, S. Li, Y. Jiang, et al., “Reduced-Dimensional Perovskite Photovoltaics With Homogeneous Energy Landscape,” Nature Communications 11, no. 1 (2020): 1672.

[55] R. Quintero-Bermudez, A. Gold-Parker, A. H. Proppe, et al., “Compositional and Orientational Control in Metal Halide Perovskites of Reduced Dimensionality,” Nature Materials 17, no. 10 (2018): 900–907.

[56] E. S. Vasileiadou, B. Wang, I. Spanopoulos, I. Hadar, A. Navrotsky, and M. G. Kanatzidis, “Insight on the Stability of Thick Layers in 2D Ruddlesden–Popper and Dion–Jacobson Lead Iodide Perovskites,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 143, no. 6 (2021): 2523–2536.

[57] C. M. M. Soe, G. P. Nagabhushana, R. Shivaramaiah, et al., “Structural and Thermodynamic Limits of Layer Thickness in 2D Halide Perovskites,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 1 (2019): 58–66.

[58] Z. Chen, H. Xue, G. Brocks, P. A. Bobbert, and S. Tao, “Thermodynamic Origin of the Photostability of the Two-Dimensional Perovskite PEA₂Pb(I_1−xBr_x)₄,” ACS Energy Letters 8, no. 2 (2023): 943–949.

[59] Z. Li, H. Wu, Z. Zhang, et al., “Cation–π/π–π Synergy Induced Self-Assembly of Semiconductor Spacers for High Efficiency and Stable 2D/3D Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 37 (2025): e11235.

[60] M.-H. Li, T.-G. Sun, J.-Y. Shao, Y. D. Wang, J. S. Hu, and Y. W. Zhong, “A Sulfur-Rich Small Molecule as a Bifunctional Interfacial Layer for Stable Perovskite Solar Cells With Efficiencies Exceeding 22%,” Nano Energy 79 (2021): 105462.

[61] Z. Zhang, J. Jin, Z. Li, et al., “Nucleation-Layer Assisted Quasi-2D Ruddlesden–Popper Tin Perovskite Solar Cells With High Oxygen Stability,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 30 (2025): 2501156.

[62] M.-H. Li, S.-C. Liu, F.-Z. Qiu, Z. Zhang, D. Xue, and J. Hu, “High-Efficiency CsPbI₂Br Perovskite Solar Cells With Dopant-Free Poly(3-Hexylthiophene) Hole Transporting Layers,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 21 (2020): 2000501.

[63] Z. Li, H. Gu, X. Liu, et al., “Uniform Phase Permutation of Efficient Ruddlesden–Popper Perovskite Solar Cells via Binary Spacers and Single Crystal Coordination,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 48 (2024): 2410408.

[64] S. Kang, Z. Wang, W. Chen, et al., “Boosting Carrier Transport in Quasi-2D/3D Perovskite Heterojunction for High-Performance Perovskite/Organic Tandems,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 1 (2025): 2411027.

[65] J. Zhang, N. Gan, F. Liu, et al., “Revealing Performance-Limiting Buried Interfaces in Layered Dion–Jacobson Lead-Iodide Perovskites,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 147, no. 34 (2025): 30873–30884.

[66] B. Chen, H. Chen, Y. Hou, et al., “Passivation of the Buried Interface via Preferential Crystallization of 2D Perovskite on Metal Oxide Transport Layers,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 41 (2021): 2103394.

[67] C. Liu, Z. Fang, J. Sun, et al., “Donor–Acceptor–Donor Type Organic Spacer for Regulating the Quantum Wells of Dion–Jacobson 2D Perovskites,” Nano Energy 93 (2022): 106800.

[68] P. S. Mathew, G. Szabó, M. Kuno, and P. V. Kamat, “Phase Segregation and Sequential Expulsion of Iodide and Bromide in Photoirradiated Ruddlesden–Popper 2D Perovskite Films,” ACS Energy Letters 7, no. 11 (2022): 3982–3988.

[69] W. Mao, C. R. Hall, S. Bernardi, et al., “Light-Induced Reversal of Ion Segregation in Mixed-Halide Perovskites,” Nature Materials 20, no. 1 (2021): 55–61.

[70] Y. Qian, J. Li, H. Cao, et al., “Passivating Perovskites in Air via an Alternating Cation Interlayer Phase Formed by Benzylamine Vapor Fumigation,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 24 (2023): 2214731.

[71] Y. Zhu, P. Lv, M. Hu, et al., “Synergetic Passivation of Metal-Halide Perovskite With Fluorinated Phenmethylammonium Toward Efficient Solar Cells and Modules,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 8 (2023): 2203681.

[72] M. Xiong, W. Zou, K. Fan, et al., “Tailoring Phase Purity in the 2D/3D Perovskite Heterostructures Using Lattice Mismatch,” ACS Energy Letters 7, no. 1 (2022): 550–559.

[73] K. Sun, R. Guo, S. Liu, et al., “Deciphering Structure and Charge Carrier Behavior in Reduced-Dimensional Perovskites,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 52 (2024): 2411153.

[74] Y. Xu, M. Wang, Y. Lei, Z. Ci, and Z. Jin, “Crystallization Kinetics in 2D Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 43 (2020): 2002558.

[75] H. Chen, S. Teale, B. Chen, et al., “Quantum-Size-Tuned Heterostructures Enable Efficient and Stable Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Photonics 16, no. 5 (2022): 352–358.

[76] S. Tan, M.-C. Shih, Y. Lu, et al., “Spontaneous Formation of Robust Two-Dimensional Perovskite Phases,” Science 388, no. 6747 (2025): 639–645.

[77] K. Wang, X. Sun, C. Peng, et al., “Direct Versus Indirect 2D/3D Heterojunction Engineering: Ordered Interface Design for Ultastable Perovskite Solar Cells,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 114 (2026): 520–527.

[78] Anonymous., “Phase-Pure 2D Perovskite Passivation Layers Through Surface Reaction Control,” Nature Synthesis 4, no. 11 (2025): 1336–1337.

[79] J. Yang, S. Xiong, J. Song, et al., “Energetics and Energy Loss in 2D Ruddlesden–Popper Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 23 (2020): 2000687.

[80] Y. Li, Y. Zou, S. Yang, et al., “Improving Carrier Transport for Stable and Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells via MXene-Modified 2D Perovskite Capping Layer,” Chemical Engineering Journal 500 (2024): 156686.

[81] R. Guo, L. Rao, Q. Liu, et al., “Atmospheric Stable and Flexible Sn-Based Perovskite Solar Cells via a Bio-Inspired Antioxidative Crystal Template,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 66 (2022): 612–618.

[82] J. Y. Kim, J.-W. Lee, H. S. Jung, H. Shin, and N.-G. Park, “High-Efficiency Perovskite Solar Cells,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 15 (2020): 7867–7918.

[83] J. Han, K. Park, S. Tan, et al., “Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Reviews Methods Primers 5, no. 1 (2025): 3.

[84] N. N. Lal, Y. Dkhissi, W. Li, Q. Hou, Y. Cheng, and U. Bach, “Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 18 (2017): 1602761.

[85] C. Zuo, H. J. Bolink, H. Han, J. Huang, D. Cahen, and L. Ding, “Advances in Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Science 3, no. 7 (2016): 1500324.

[86] J. J. Yoo, S. Wieghold, M. C. Sponseller, et al., “An Interface Stabilized Perovskite Solar Cell With High Stabilized Efficiency and Low Voltage Loss,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 7 (2019): 2192–2199.

[87] A. H. Proppe, A. Johnston, S. Teale, et al., “Multication Perovskite 2D/3D Interfaces Form via Progressive Dimensional Reduction,” Nature Communications 12, no. 1 (2021): 3472.

[88] Y. Wang, Y. Lan, Q. Song, et al., “Perovskite Solar Cells: Colorful Efficient Moiré-Perovskite Solar Cells (Adv. Mater. 15/2021),” Advanced Materials 33, no. 15 (2021): 2170116.

[89] H. S. Jung, G. S. Han, N.-G. Park, and M. J. Ko, “Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells,” Joule 3, no. 8 (2019): 1850–1880.

[90] X. Chang, R. Azmi, T. Yang, et al., “Solvent-Dripping Modulated 3D/2D Heterostructures for High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Communications 16, no. 1 (2025): 1042.

[91] H. Wang, L. Deng, Y. Pan, et al., “Green Solvent Polishing Enables Highly Efficient Quasi-2D Perovskite Solar Cells,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 30 (2023): 36447–36456.

[92] J. Li, C. Jin, R. Jiang, et al., “Homogeneous Coverage of the Low-Dimensional Perovskite Passivation Layer for Formamidinium-Caesium Perovskite Solar Modules,” Nature Energy 9, no. 12 (2024): 1540–1550.

[93] S. Sidhik, Y. Wang, M. De Siena, et al., “Deterministic Fabrication of 3D/2D Perovskite Bilayer Stacks for Durable and Efficient Solar Cells,” Science 377, no. 6613 (2022): 1425–1430.

[94] S. Ye, H. Rao, M. Feng, et al., “Expanding the Low-Dimensional Interface Engineering Toolbox for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Energy 8, no. 3 (2023): 284–293.

[95] X. Sun, W. Shi, T. Liu, et al., “Vapor-Assisted Surface Reconstruction Enables Outdoor-Stable Perovskite Solar Modules,” Science 388, no. 6750 (2025): 957–963.

[96] Y. Yang and J. You, “Make Perovskite Solar Cells Stable,” Nature 544, no. 7649 (2017): 155–156.

[97] M. Saliba, “Perovskite Solar Cells Must Come of Age,” Science 359, no. 6374 (2018): 388–389.

[98] A. J. Ramadan, “Perovskite Solar Cells Take the Heat,” Nature Energy 8, no. 11 (2023): 1186–1187.

[99] D. Lin, T. Zhang, J. Wang, et al., “Stable and Scalable 3D–2D Planar Heterojunction Perovskite Solar Cells via Vapor Deposition,” Nano Energy 59 (2019): 619–625.

[100] G. Yan, H. Tang, Y. Shen, L. Han, and Q. Han, “AI-Generated Ammonium Ligands for High-Efficiency and Stable 2D/3D Heterojunction Perovskite Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 26 (2025): 2503154.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Authors. Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.