Recent Progress on Fullerene–Based Functional Materials for Energy Conversion

Abstract

Efficient energy conversion and environmental protection are still constrained by rapid carrier recombination, unstable interfaces, limited active site, and so on. Owing to the unique electronic structure and tunable physicochemical properties, fullerenes offer a powerful platform to address these bottlenecks in photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, and energy storage. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the classification and design strategies of fullerene–based functional materials, as well as their innovative applications in photo-/electro-/thermo-catalysis and energy storage. From the perspective of material system design, we emphasize the construction strategies of inorganic hybrids such as fullerene–metal nanoparticle and fullerene–semiconductor composites, as well as fullerene–organic hybrid materials. In catalytic applications, the review analyzes activity enhancement mechanisms of fullerene-based materials in photocatalytic pollutant degradation, photo-/electro-catalytic water splitting, CO₂ conversion, and highlights their innovative roles in traditional thermal catalytic processes such as ammonia synthesis. In the field of energy storage devices, we focus on the essential function of fullerene derivatives in crucial segments like the electron transport layer, interfacial modification/passivation layers of solar cells. Finally, the challenges and opportunities faced by fullerene–based functional materials are discussed. Overall, this review not only highlights advances in fullerene–based functional materials but also outlines a roadmap for harnessing their structural and electronic advantages to guide the rational design of next-generation strategies for energy conversion and environmental remediation.

Keywords

electrocatalysis / fullerene / photocatalysis / solar cells

References

[1] D. Shindell and C. J. Smith, “Climate and Air-Quality Benefits of a Realistic Phase-Out of Fossil Fuels,” Nature 573, no. 573 (2019): 408–411.

[2] H. Rao, L. C. Schmidt, J. Bonin, and M. Robert, “Visible-Light-Driven Methane Formation From CO₂ With a Molecular Iron Catalyst,” Nature 548, no. 7765 (2017): 74–77.

[3] Y. Wang, H. Sun, Z. Yang, Y. Zhu, and Y. Xia, “Bismuth-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks and Derivatives for Photocatalytic Applications in Energy and Environment: Advances and Challenges,” Carbon Neutralization 3, no. 4 (2024): 737–767.

[4] L. Li, D. Xu, X. Xu, et al., “Modulation of Active Center Distance of Hybrid Perovskite for Boosting Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Ethylene,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121, no. 7 (2024): e2318970121.

[5] D. L. T. Nguyen, Y. Kim, Y. J. Hwang, and D. H. Won, “Progress in Development of Electrocatalyst for CO₂ Conversion to Selective CO Production,” Carbon Energy 2, no. 1 (2020): 72–98.

[6] D. D. Zhu, J. L. Liu, and S. Z. Qiao, “Recent Advances in Inorganic Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for Reduction of Carbon Dioxide,” Advanced Materials 28, no. 18 (2016): 3423–3452.

[7] C. Xia, P. Zhu, Q. Jiang, et al., “Continuous Production of Pure Liquid Fuel Solutions via Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction Using Solid-Electrolyte Devices,” Nature Energy 4, no. 9 (2019): 776–785.

[8] J. Zhang, X. Li, H. Hu, et al., “Enhancing Photocatalytic Performance of Covalent Organic Frameworks via Ionic Polarization,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 9576.

[9] Y. Zhang, H. Liu, F. Gao, et al., “Application of MOFs and COFs for Photocatalysis in CO₂ Reduction, H₂ Generation, and Environmental Treatment,” EnergyChem 4, no. 4 (2022): 100078.

[10] Y. Song, C. Wang, Y. Jiang, et al., “Tailoring Ultrashort Inter-Fullerene Spacing in a Continuous Fullerene Stacking Array to Enhance Electron Transport for Boosting Solar-Driven Hydrogen Production,” Carbon Energy 7, no. 7 (2025): e70000.

[11] A. Zieleniewska, F. Lodermeyer, A. Roth, and D. M. Guldi, “Fullerenes–How 25 Years of Charge Transfer Chemistry Have Shaped Our Understanding of (Interfacial) Interactions,” Chemical Society Reviews 47, no. 3 (2018): 702–714.

[12] D. M. Guldi, “Fullerene–Porphyrin Architectures; Photosynthetic Antenna and Reaction Center Models,” Chemical Society Reviews 31, no. 1 (2002): 22–36.

[13] S. Yao, X. Yuan, L. Jiang, T. Xiong, and J. Zhang, “Recent Progress on Fullerene-Based Materials: Synthesis, Properties, Modifications, and Photocatalytic Applications,” Materials 13, no. 13 (2020): 2924.

[14] J. Yang, M. Heo, H. J. Lee, S.-M. Park, J. Y. Kim, and H. S. Shin, “Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO)-Wrapped Fullerene (C₆₀) Wires,” ACS Nano 5, no. 10 (2011): 8365–8371.

[15] B. A. Gregg, “Entropy of Charge Separation in Organic Photovoltaic Cells: The Benefit of Higher Dimensionality,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2, no. 24 (2011): 3013–3015.

[16] B. M. Savoie, A. Rao, A. A. Bakulin, et al., “Unequal Partnership: Asymmetric Roles of Polymeric Donor and Fullerene Acceptor in Generating Free Charge,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 136, no. 7 (2014): 2876–2884.

[17] P. E. Hartnett, C. M. Mauck, M. A. Harris, et al., “Influence of Anion Delocalization on Electron Transfer in a Covalent Porphyrin Donor–Perylenediimide Dimer Acceptor System,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 139, no. 2 (2017): 749–756.

[18] A. Hirsch, Z. Chen, and H. Jiao, “Spherical Aromaticity in I_h Symmetrical Fullerenes: The 2(N+1)² Rule,” Angewandte Chemie 39, no. 21 (2000): 3915–3917.

[19] Y. Pan, X. Liu, W. Zhang, et al., “Advances in Photocatalysis Based on Fullerene C₆₀ and Its Derivatives,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 265 (2020): 118579.

[20] W. Yang, Q. Huang, Y. Yan, et al., “C₆₀ Fullerene-Induced Reduction of Metal Ions: Synthesis of C₆₀-Metal Cluster Heterostructures With High Electrocatalytic Hydrogen-Evolution Performance,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 2 (2025): e202414149.

[21] C. Wang, B. Wu, and C. Wang, “Rational Construction and Efficient Regulation of Stable and Long-Lived Charge-Separation State in Fullerene Materials,” Accounts of Materials Research 5, no. 4 (2024): 426–437.

[22] Q. Huang, W. Yang, Y. Yan, et al., “Regulation of d-Band Center of Ruthenium Sites via Electronic Complementary Effect of C₆₀ Fullerene Molecules and Manganese Atoms for Efficient Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 49 (2024): 2409406.

[23] B. Zhao, F. Chen, C. Cheng, L. Li, C. Liu, and B. Zhang, “C₆₀−Stabilized Cu⁺ Sites Boost Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO₂ to C₂₊ Products,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 19 (2023): 2204346.

[24] B. Jiang, S. Wang, F. Meng, et al., “Enhancing the ORR Activity of Fullerene-Derived Carbons by Implanting Fe in Assembled Diamine–C₆₀ Spheres,” CrystEngComm 24, no. 32 (202 (2022): 5783–5791.

[25] W. Wang, Y. Tao, J. Fan, et al., “Fullerene–Graphene Acceptor Drives Ultrafast Carrier Dynamics for Sustainable CdS Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 23 (2022): 2201357.

[26] L. Zhang, T. Wang, X. Zhang, and P. Du, “Two-Dimensional Fullerene Nanosheets Anchored With Ultrafine Bismuth Nanoparticles for Highly Selective Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction to HCOOH Over a Wide Potential Window,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 12, no. 37 (2024): 14070–14076.

[27] R. Zhang, Y. Li, X. Zhou, et al., “Single-Atomic Platinum on Fullerene C₆₀ Surfaces for Accelerated Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution,” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 2460.

[28] T. Luo, J. Huang, Y. Hu, et al., “Fullerene Lattice-Confined Ru Nanoparticles and Single Atoms Synergistically Boost Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 12 (2023): 2213058.

[29] Y. Wang, J. Wang, J. Xu, et al., “Fullerene-Buffered Electron Shuttle of Ru/RuO₂ With Switchable Active Sites Enables Robust and Efficient Bifunctional Alkaline Water Electrolysis,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 23 (2025): e202503608.

[30] M. A. Ahsan, T. He, K. Eid, et al., “Tuning the Intermolecular Electron Transfer of Low-Dimensional and Metal-Free BCN/C₆₀ Electrocatalysts via Interfacial Defects for Efficient Hydrogen and Oxygen Electrochemistry,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 143, no. 2 (2021): 1203–1215.

[31] A. R. Puente Santiago, T. He, O. Eraso, et al., “Tailoring the Interfacial Interactions of van der Waals 1T-MoS₂/C₆₀ Heterostructures for High-Performance Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Electrocatalysis,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 142, no. 42 (2020): 17923–17927.

[32] T. Xu, R. Zhu, J. Zhu, et al., “Fullerene Modification of Ag₃ PO₄ for the Visible-Light-Driven Degradation of Acid Red 18,” RSC Advances 6, no. 89 (2016): 85962–85969.

[33] S. Sardar, T. Munawar, F. Mukhtar, et al., “Fullerene Trigged Energy Storage and Photocatalytic Ability of La₂O₃-ZnO@C₆₀ Core-Shell Nanocomposite,” Materials Science and Engineering: B 288 (2023): 116151.

[34] C. Zou, Z. Meng, W. Ji, et al., “Preparation of a Fullerene[60]-Iron Oxide Complex for the Photo-Fenton Degradation of Organic Contaminants Under Visible-Light Irradiation,” Chinese Journal of Catalysis 39, no. 6 (2018): 1051–1059.

[35] J. Kyriakopoulos, E. Kordouli, K. Bourikas, C. Kordulis, and A. Lycourghiotis, “Decolorization of Orange-G Aqueous Solutions Over C₆₀/MCM-41 Photocatalysts,” Applied Sciences 9, no. 9 (2019): 1958.

[36] Y. Ding, Y. Chen, Z. Guan, et al., “Hierarchical CuS@ZnIn₂S₄ Hollow Double-Shelled p–n Heterojunction Octahedra Decorated With Fullerene C₆₀ for Remarkable Selectivity and Activity of CO₂ Photoreduction Into CH₄,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 14, no. 6 (2022): 7888–7899.

[37] T. Munawar, A. Bashir, M. S. Nadeem, et al., “Electrochemical Performance Evaluation of Bimetallic Sulfide Nanocomposite With Fullerene (CeNdS/C₆₀) for Efficient Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER),” Energy & Fuels 37, no. 2 (2023): 1370–1386.

[38] Z. Lian, P. Xu, W. Wang, et al., “C₆₀-Decorated CdS/TiO₂ Mesoporous Architectures With Enhanced Photostability and Photocatalytic Activity for H₂ Evolution,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 7 (2015): 4533–4540.

[39] Z. Zhang, M. Shu, Y. Jiang, and J. Xu, “Fullerene Modified CsPbBr₃ Perovskite Nanocrystals for Efficient Charge Separation and Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Chemical Engineering Journal 414 (2021): 128889.

[40] M. Wolf, C. Villegas, O. Trukhina, et al., “Mediating Reductive Charge Shift Reactions in Electron Transport Chains,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 139, no. 48 (2017): 17474–17483.

[41] C. Wang, B. Wu, Y. Li, et al., “Regioisomeric Benzidine-Fullerenes: Tuning of the Diverse Hole-Distribution to Influence Charge Separation Patterns,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 15 (2023): e202300377.

[42] M. Wolf, A. Herrmann, A. Hirsch, and D. M. Guldi, “Rigid, Branched Porphyrin Antennas: Control Over Cascades of Unidirectional Energy Funneling and Charge Transfer,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 139, no. 34 (2017): 11779–11788.

[43] X. Liu, M. Kozlowska, T. Okkali, et al., “Photoconductivity in Metal–Organic Framework (MOF) Thin Films,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58, no. 28 (2019): 9590–9595.

[44] L. Liu, H. Meng, Y. Chai, et al., “Enhancing Built-In Electric Fields for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution by Encapsulating C₆₀ Fullerene Into Zirconium-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 11 (2023): e202217897.

[45] X. Dong, Z. Xin, D. He, et al., “Boosting CO₂ Electroreduction Performance Over Fullerene-Modified MOF-545-Co Promoted by π–π Interaction,” Chinese Chemical Letters 34, no. 4 (2023): 107459.

[46] J. Jing, J. Li, Y. Su, and Y. Zhu, “Non-Covalently Linked Donor-Acceptor Interaction Enhancing Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution From Porphyrin Assembly,” Applied Catalysis, B: Environmental 324 (2023): 122284.

[47] J. Yang, J. Jing, and Y. Zhu, “A Full-Spectrum Porphyrin–Fullerene D–A Supramolecular Photocatalyst With Giant Built-In Electric Field for Efficient Hydrogen Production,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 31 (2021): 2101026.

[48] Y.-O. He, Y.-M. Fu, X. Meng, et al., “Enhanced Visible Light-Driven CO₂ Reduction Activity Induced by Z-Scheme Heterojunction Photocatalyst C₆₀/TpPa (COF),” Applied Catalysis, A: General 663 (2023): 119320.

[49] J. Wu, S. Wang, Z. Lei, et al., “Pomegranate-Like C₆₀@Cobalt/Nitrogen-Codoped Porous Carbon for High-Performance Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Lithium-Sulfur Battery,” Nano Research 14, no. 8 (2021): 2596–2605.

[50] Y. Chai, L. Liu, Y. Xu, et al., “Interfullerene Electronic Interactions and Excited-State Dynamics in Fullerene Dumbbell Conjugates,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 145, no. 26 (2023): 14190–14195.

[51] Y. Chai, X. Liu, B. Wu, et al., “In Situ Switching of Photoinduced Electron Transfer Direction by Regulating the Redox State in Fullerene-Based Dyads,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 142, no. 9 (2020): 4411–4418.

[52] H. Fensterbank, K. Baczko, C. Constant, et al., “Sequential Copper-Catalyzed Alkyne–Azide Cycloaddition and Thiol-Maleimide Addition for the Synthesis of Photo- and/or Electroactive Fullerodendrimers and Cysteine-Functionalized Fullerene Derivatives,” Journal of Organic Chemistry 81, no. 18 (2016): 8222–8233.

[53] J.-C. Wu, D.-X. Wang, Z.-T. Huang, and M.-X. Wang, “Synthesis of Diverse N,O-Bridged Calix[1]Arene[4]Pyridine-C₆₀ Dyads and Triads and Formation of Intramolecular Self-Inclusion Complexes,” Journal of Organic Chemistry 75, no. 24 (2010): 8604–8614.

[54] F. D'Souza and O. Ito, “Supramolecular Donor–Acceptor Hybrids of Porphyrins/Phthalocyanines With Fullerenes/Carbon Nanotubes: Electron Transfer, Sensing, Switching, and Catalytic Applications,” Chemical Communications 33 (2009): 4913–4928.

[55] L. Liu, X. Chen, Y. Chai, et al., “Highly Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production via Porphyrin-Fullerene Supramolecular Photocatalyst With Donor-Acceptor Structure,” Chemical Engineering Journal 444 (2022): 136621.

[56] X. Zhao, M. Sajjad, Y. Zheng, et al., “Covalent Organic Framework Templated Ordered Nanoporous C₆₀ as Stable Energy Efficient Supercapacitor Electrode Material,” Carbon 182 (2021): 144–154.

[57] G. A. Leith, A. M. Rice, B. J. Yarbrough, et al., “A Dual Threat: Redox-Activity and Electronic Structures of Well-Defined Donor–Acceptor Fulleretic Covalent-Organic Materials,” Angewandte Chemie 132, no. 15 (2020): 6056–6062.

[58] L. Chen, K. Furukawa, J. Gao, et al., “Photoelectric Covalent Organic Frameworks: Converting Open Lattices into Ordered Donor–Acceptor Heterojunctions,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 136, no. 28 (2014): 9806–9809.

[59] L. Hou, X. Cui, B. Guan, et al., “Synthesis of a Monolayer Fullerene Network,” Nature 606, no. 714 (2022): 507–510.

[60] E. Meirzadeh, A. M. Evans, M. Rezaee, et al., “A Few-Layer Covalent Network of Fullerenes,” Nature 613, no. 7942 (2023): 71–76.

[61] Y. Zhang, Y. Xie, H. Mei, et al., “Electrochemical Synthesis of 2D Polymeric Fullerene for Broadband Photodetection,” Advanced Materials 37, no. 14 (2025): 2416741.

[62] D. Gang, Z. Uddin Ahmad, Q. Lian, L. Yao, and M. E. Zappi, “A Review of Adsorptive Remediation of Environmental Pollutants From Aqueous Phase by Ordered Mesoporous Carbon,” Chemical Engineering Journal 403 (2021): 126286.

[63] R. Pedrazzani, G. Bertanza, I. Brnardić, et al., “Opinion Paper About Organic Trace Pollutants in Wastewater: Toxicity Assessment in a European Perspective,” Science of the Total Environment 651 (2019): 3202–3221.

[64] P. Schwarzenbach, B. I. Escher, K. Fenner, et al., “The Challenge of Micropollutants in Aquatic Systems,” Science 313, no. 5790 (2006): 1072–1077.

[65] C. Lim, H.-R. An, H. Lee, et al., “Carbon-Titanium Dioxide Heterogeneous (Photo)Catalysts (C–TiO₂) for Highly Efficient Visible Light Photocatalytic Application,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 241 (2022): 109997.

[66] J. Kosco, S. Gonzalez-Carrero, C. T. Howells, et al., “Generation of Long-Lived Charges in Organic Semiconductor Heterojunction Nanoparticles for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution,” Nature Energy 7, no. 4 (2022): 340–351.

[67] R. Zhang, B. Zhang, J. Lv, et al., “Heteropore Conjugated Organic Reticular Subnano-Crystal for Photocatalytic Water Splitting,” Carbon Neutralization 4, no. 3 (2025): e70016.

[68] R. Bera, S. Chakraborty, S. K. Nayak, B. Jana, and A. Patra, “Structural Insight and Ultrafast Dynamics of 2D Porphyrin Nanostructures,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 123, no. 25 (2019): 15815–15826.

[69] J. Lv, J. Xie, A. G. A. Mohamed, et al., “Solar Utilization Beyond Photosynthesis,” Nature Reviews Chemistry 7, no. 2 (2023): 91–105.

[70] L. Liu, Z. Wang, J. Zhang, O. Ruzimuradov, K. Dai, and J. Low, “Tunable Interfacial Charge Transfer in a 2D–2D Composite for Efficient Visible-Light-Driven CO₂ Conversion,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 26 (2023): 2300643.

[71] Q. Wang, C. Pornrungroj, S. Linley, and E. Reisner, “Strategies to Improve Light Utilization in Solar Fuel Synthesis,” Nature Energy 7, no. 1 (2022): 13–24.

[72] K. Li, Y. Su, S. Sun, et al., “Efficient Crystallization of Conjugated Microporous Polymers to Boost Photocatalytic CO₂ Reduction,” Carbon Energy 7, no. 9 (2025): e70025.

[73] E. Gong, S. Ali, C. B. Hiragond, et al., “Solar Fuels: Research and Development Strategies to Accelerate Photocatalytic CO₂ Conversion Into Hydrocarbon Fuels,” Energy & Environmental Science 15, no. 3 (2022): 880–937.

[74] Z. Xu, Y. Wang, Y. Li, et al., “C₆₀ and Derivatives Boost Electrocatalysis and Photocatalysis: Electron Buffers to Heterojunctions,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 46 (2023): 2302438.

[75] Y. Jiang, C. Wang, T. Dong, et al., “Fullerene C₇₀-Encapsulated Tetrathiafulvalene-Co Porphyrin Covalent Organic Framework: Driving Multistep Charge Transfer to Boost CO₂ Photoreduction,” Advanced Science 12, no. 28 (2025): 2505161.

[76] S. Hammes-Schiffer and G. Galli, “Integration of Theory and Experiment in the Modelling of Heterogeneous Electrocatalysis,” Nature Energy 6, no. 7 (2021): 700–705.

[77] Y. Jia, Y. Zhang, H. Xu, J. Li, M. Gao, and X. Yang, “Recent Advances in Doping Strategies to Improve Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Performance of Molybdenum Disulfide,” ACS Catalysis 14, no. 7 (2024): 4601–4637.

[78] R. Wan, T. Yuan, L. Wang, B. Li, M. Liu, and B. Zhao, “Earth-Abundant Electrocatalysts for Acidic Oxygen Evolution,” Nature Catalysis 7, no. 12 (2024): 1288–1304.

[79] Z. W. Seh, J. Kibsgaard, C. F. Dickens, I. Chorkendorff, J. K. Nørskov, and T. F. Jaramillo, “Combining Theory and Experiment in Electrocatalysis: Insights Into Materials Design,” Science 355, no. 6321 (2017): eaad4998.

[80] P. Cui, L. Zhao, Y. Long, L. Dai, and C. Hu, “Carbon-Based Electrocatalysts for Acidic Oxygen Reduction Reaction,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 62, no. 14 (2023): e202218269.

[81] Y.-C. Zhang, C. Han, J. Gao, et al., “NiCo-Based Electrocatalysts for the Alkaline Oxygen Evolution Reaction: A Review,” ACS Catalysis 11, no. 20 (2021): 12485–12509.

[82] H. Zhong, Q. Zhang, J. Yu, et al., “Fundamental Understanding of Structural Reconstruction Behaviors in Oxygen Evolution Reaction Electrocatalysts,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 31 (2023): 2301391.

[83] T. Munawar, A. Bashir, M. S. Nadeem, et al., “Core-Shell CeO₂@C₆₀ Hybrid Serves as a Dual-Functional Catalyst: Photocatalyst for Organic Pollutant Degradation and Electrocatalyst for Oxygen Evolution Reaction,” Ceramics International 49, no. 5 (2023): 8447–8462.

[84] D. Xu, K. Li, B. Jia, et al., “Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction Towards Industrial Applications,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 1 (2023): e230.

[85] X. Li, W. Kang, X. Fan, et al., “Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction to Liquid Fuels: Mechanistic Pathways and Surface/Interface Engineering of Catalysts and Electrolytes,” Innovation 6, no. 3 (2025): 100807.

[86] A. Yadav, N. Vikram, N. Singh, and A. Alam, “Mixed-Functionalized Sc₂CT_x (T=O, OH, F) Mxene for Electrocatalytic CO₂ Reduction: Insight From First-Principles Calculations,” Physical Review Applied 18, no. 2 (2022): 024020.

[87] Y. Tanabe and Y. Nishibayashi, “Comprehensive Insights Into Synthetic Nitrogen Fixation Assisted by Molecular Catalysts Under Ambient or Mild Conditions,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 8 (202 (2021): 5201–5242.

[88] Z. Zhao, J. Park, C. Choi, et al., “Engineering Vacancy and Hydrophobicity of Two-Dimensional TaTe₂ for Efficient and Stable Electrocatalytic N₂ Reduction,” Innovation 3, no. 1 (2022): 100190.

[89] C. L. Cheng and I. Novales Flamarique, “New Mechanism for Modulating Colour Vision,” Nature 428, no. 6890 (2004): 279.

[90] Y. Zhang, X. Peng, H.-R. Tian, et al., “Fullerene on Non-Iron Cluster-Matrix Co-Catalysts Promotes Collaborative H₂ and N₂ Activation for Ammonia Synthesis,” Nature Chemistry 16, no. 11 (2024): 1781–1787.

[91] X. Peng, Y. Luo, Y. Zhang, et al., “Dissecting the Essential Role of a Molecular Promoter C₆₀ on a Ru Catalyst for Ammonia Synthesis,” ACS Catalysis 15, no. 4 (2025): 2827–2838.

[92] J. Zheng, L. Huang, C.-H. Cui, et al., “Ambient-Pressure Synthesis of Ethylene Glycol Catalyzed by C₆₀-Buffered Cu/SiO₂,” Science 376, no. 6590 (2022): 288–292.

[93] N. S. Sariciftci, D. Braun, C. Zhang, et al., “Semiconducting Polymer-Buckminsterfullerene Heterojunctions: Diodes, Photodiodes, and Photovoltaic Cells,” Applied Physics Letters 62, no. 6 (1993): 585–587.

[94] A. A. Bakulin, A. Rao, V. G. Pavelyev, et al., “The Role of Driving Energy and Delocalized States for Charge Separation in Organic Semiconductors,” Science 335, no. 6074 (2012): 1340–1344.

[95] J.-Y. Jeng, Y.-F. Chiang, M.-H. Lee, et al., “CH₃NH₃PbI₃ Perovskite/Fullerene Planar-Heterojunction Hybrid Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 25, no. 27 (2013): 3727–3732.

[96] D. M. Guldi, “Fullerene–Porphyrin Architectures; Photosynthetic Antenna and Reaction Center Models,” Chemical Society Reviews 31, no. 1 (2002): 22–36.

[97] B. C. Thompson and J. M. J. Fréchet, “Polymer–Fullerene Composite Solar Cells,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 47, no. 1 (2008): 58–77.

[98] L. Meng, Y. Zhang, X. Wan, et al., “Organic and Solution-Processed Tandem Solar Cells With 17.3% Efficiency,” Science 361, no. 6407 (2018): 1094–1098.

[99] Y. Shao, Y. Yuan, and J. Huang, “Correlation of Energy Disorder and Open-Circuit Voltage in Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature Energy 1, no. 1 (2016): 15001.

[100] K. A. Mazzio and C. K. Luscombe, “The Future of Organic Photovoltaics,” Chemical Society Reviews 44, no. 1 (2015): 78–90.

[101] T. M. Clarke and J. R. Durrant, “Charge Photogeneration in Organic Solar Cells,” Chemical Reviews 110, no. 11 (2010): 6736–6767.

[102] X. Li, Y. Wang, H. Wang, et al., “Indacenodithieno[3,2-b]Thiophene-Bridged Fullerene for Defect Suppression in Perovskite Photovoltaics,” ACS Energy Letters 10, no. 7 (2025): 3451–3458.

[103] J. Luo, H. Zhang, C. Sun, et al., “Efficient and Stable Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells Enabled by a Fullerene-Based Hole Transport Molecule,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 51 (2024): e202411659.

[104] X. Rodríguez-Martínez, S. Riera-Galindo, J. Cong, T. Österberg, M. Campoy-Quiles, and O. Inganäs, “Matching Electron Transport Layers With a Non-Halogenated and Low Synthetic Complexity Polymer: Fullerene Blend for Efficient Outdoor and Indoor Organic Photovoltaics,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 10, no. 19 (2022): 10768–10779.

[105] D. He, J. Zhang, X.-Y. Gong, et al., “Compacting Molecular Stacking and Inhibiting Self-Aggregation in Fullerene Transporting Layer for Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 64, no. 22 (2025): e202502950.

[106] A. Rao, P. C. Y. Chow, S. Gélinas, et al., “The Role of Spin in the Kinetic Control of Recombination in Organic Photovoltaics,” Nature 500, no. 7463 (2013): 435–439.

[107] S. Gélinas, A. Rao, A. Kumar, et al., “Ultrafast Long-Range Charge Separation in Organic Semiconductor Photovoltaic Diodes,” Science 343, no. 6170 (2014): 512–516.

[108] Z. A. Page, Y. Liu, V. V. Duzhko, T. P. Russell, and T. Emrick, “Fulleropyrrolidine Interlayers: Tailoring Electrodes to Raise Organic Solar Cell Efficiency,” Science 346, no. 6208 (2014): 441–444.

[109] J. Zhao, Y. Li, G. Yang, et al., “Efficient Organic Solar Cells Processed From Hydrocarbon Solvents,” Nature Energy 1, no. 2 (2016): 15027.

[110] Y. He, H.-Y. Chen, J. Hou, and Y. Li, “Indene-C₆₀ Bisadduct: A New Acceptor for High-Performance Polymer Solar Cells,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 132, no. 4 (2010): 1377–1382.

[111] S. You, H. Zeng, Y. Liu, et al., “Radical Polymeric p-Doping and Grain Modulation for Stable, Efficient Perovskite Solar Modules,” Science 379, no. 6629 (2023): 288–294.

[112] R. Lin, Y. Wang, Q. Lu, et al., “All-Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells With 3D/3D Bilayer Perovskite Heterojunction,” Nature 620, no. 7976 (2023): 994–1000.

[113] Z. Liang, Y. Zhang, H. Xu, et al., “Homogenizing Out-of-Plane Cation Composition in Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature 624, no. 7992 (2023): 557–563.

[114] Y. Lin, J. Wang, Z.-G. Zhang, et al., “An Electron Acceptor Challenging Fullerenes for Efficient Polymer Solar Cells,” Advanced Materials 27, no. 7 (2015): 1170–1174.

[115] J. Yuan, Y. Zhang, L. Zhou, et al., “Single-Junction Organic Solar Cell With Over 15% Efficiency Using Fused-Ring Acceptor With Electron-Deficient Core,” Joule 3, no. 4 (2019): 1140–1151.

[116] N. Yang, S. Zhang, Y. Cui, J. Wang, S. Cheng, and J. Hou, “Molecular Design for Low-Cost Organic Photovoltaic Materials,” Nature Reviews Materials 10 (2025): 404–424.

[117] Y. Lin, Z. Lin, S. Lv, et al., “A Nd@C₈₂-Polymer Interface for Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells,” Nature 642 (2025): 78–84.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.