Lithium Nitrate Effects for Lithium-Based Chemical Batteries: A Review

Abstract

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) have been regarded as one of the most promising alternatives in the post-lithium battery era due to their high energy density, which meets the needs of light-weight electronic devices and long-range electric vehicles. However, technical barriers such as dendrite growth and poor Li plating/stripping reversibility severely hinder the practical application of LMBs. However, lithium nitrate (LiNO₃) is found to be able to stabilize the Li/electrolyte interface and has been used to address the above challenges. To date, considerable research efforts have been devoted toward understanding the roles of LiNO₃ in regulating the surface properties of Li anodes and toward the development of many effective strategies. These research efforts are partially mentioned in some articles on LMBs and yet have not been reviewed systematically. To fill this gap, we discuss the recent advances in fundamental and technological research on LiNO₃ and its derivatives for improving the performances of LMBs, particularly for Li–sulfur (S), Li–oxygen (O), and Li–Li-containing transition-metal oxide (LTMO) batteries, as well as LiNO₃-containing recipes for precursors in battery materials and interphase fabrication. This review pays attention to the effects of LiNO₃ in lithium-based batteries, aiming to provide scientific guidance for the optimization of electrode/electrolyte interfaces and enrich the design of advanced LMBs.

Keywords

effects and mechanisms / LiNO₃ derivatives / LiNO₃-containing recipes / lithium metal anode / Lithium nitrate basis / lithium-based chemical batteries

References

[1] M. Armand and J.-M. Tarascon, “Building Better Batteries,” Nature 451 (2008): 652–657.

[2] M. Li, J. Lu, Z. Chen, and K. Amine, “30 Years of Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 33 (2018): 1800561.

[3] Y. Nishi, “Lithium Ion Secondary Batteries; Past 10 Years and the Future,” Journal of Power Sources 100 (2001): 101–106.

[4] V. Etacheri, R. Marom, R. Elazari, G. Salitra, and D. Aurbach, “Challenges in the Development of Advanced Li-Ion Batteries: A Review,” Energy & Environmental Science 4, no. 9 (2011): 3243–3262.

[5] X. Shen, H. Liu, X.-B. Cheng, C. Yan, and J.-Q. Huang, “Beyond Lithium Ion Batteries: Higher Energy Density Battery Systems Based on Lithium Metal Anodes,” Energy Storage Materials 12 (2018): 161–175.

[6] X. Wang, Z. Pan, Y. Wu, et al., “Infiltrating Lithium Into Carbon Cloth Decorated With Zinc Oxide Arrays for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anode,” Nano Research 12, no. 3 (2018): 525–529.

[7] D. Yang, X. Wang, Q. Wang, et al., “Solvation Structure and Electron Isolation Synergy of Piperidine Ionic Liquid Additives Inspires High Performance Lithium Metal Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 72 (2024): 103719.

[8] M. S. Whittingham, “Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry,” Science 192, no. 4244 (1976): 1126–1127.

[9] H. Yuan, J. Nai, H. Tian, et al., “An Ultrastable Lithium Metal Anode Enabled by Designed Metal Fluoride Spansules,” Science Advances 6 (2020): eaaz3112-3120.

[10] Y. Zhang, T.-T. Zuo, J. Popovic, et al., “Towards Better Li Metal Anodes: Challenges and Strategies,” Materials Today 33 (2020): 56–74.

[11] D. Lin, Y. Liu, and Y. Cui, “Reviving the Lithium Metal Anode for High-Energy Batteries,” Nature Nanotechnology 12, no. 3 (2017): 194–206.

[12] D.-H. Liu, Z. Bai, M. Li, et al., “Developing High Safety Li-Metal Anodes for Future High-Energy Li-Metal Batteries: Strategies and Perspectives,” Chemical Society Reviews 49, no. 15 (2020): 5407–5445.

[13] G. N. Lewis and F. G. Keyes, “The Potential of the Lithium Electrode,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 35 (1913): 340–344.

[14] Q. Wang, B. Liu, Y. Shen, et al., “Confronting the Challenges in Lithium Anodes for Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Science 8, no. 17 (2021): 2101111.

[15] X. Wang, J. Wu, Y. Zhao, et al., “Non-Solvating Fluorosulfonyl Carboxylate Enables Temperature-Tolerant Lithium Metal Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 82 (2023): 287–295.

[16] Y.-C. Yin, Z.-L. Yu, Z.-Y. Ma, et al., “Bio-Inspired Low-Tortuosity Carbon Host for High-Performance Lithium-Metal Anode,” National Science Review 6, no. 2 (2019): 247–256.

[17] J. Meng, Q. Pang, and L. Mai, “Introduce Tortuosity to Retain Polysulfides and Suppress Li Dendrites,” Matter 2, no. 6 (2020): 1363–1365.

[18] H. Ye, Y. Zhang, Y.-X. Yin, F.-F. Cao, and Y.-G. Guo, “An Outlook on Low-Volume-Change Lithium Metal Anodes for Long-Life Batteries,” ACS Central Science 6, no. 5 (2020): 661–671.

[19] Y. Ye, F. Wu, S. Xu, W. Qu, L. Li, and R. Chen, “Designing Realizable and Scalable Techniques for Practical Lithium Sulfur Batteries: A Perspective,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 9, no. 6 (2018): 1398–1414.

[20] Q. Zhang, S. Liu, Z. Lin, et al., “Highly Safe and Cyclable Li-Metal Batteries With Vinylethylene Carbonate Electrolyte,” Nano Energy 74 (2020): 104860.

[21] Q. Xu, J. Lin, C. Ye, et al., “Air-Stable and Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes Enabled by a Hybrid Interphase of C₆₀ and Mg,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 6 (2019): 1903292.

[22] J. Li, Z. Kong, X. Liu, et al., “Strategies to Anode Protection in Lithium Metal Battery: A Review,” InfoMat 3, no. 12 (2021): 1333–1363.

[23] J. Wu, Z. Gao, Y. Wang, et al., “Electrostatic Interaction Tailored Anion-Rich Solvation Sheath Stabilizing High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 14, no. 1 (2022): 147.

[24] J. Wu, Z. Gao, Y. Tian, et al., “Unique Tridentate Coordination Tailored Solvation Sheath Toward Highly Stable Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 38 (2023): 2303347.

[25] J. H. Fermor, A. Kjekshus, S. Svensson, et al., “On the Electrical Properties of LiNO₃,” Acta Chemica Scandinavica 23 (1969): 1581–1587.

[26] X. Wu, F. R. Fronczek, and L. G. Butler, “Structure of LiNO₃ Point Charge Model and Sign of the ⁷Li Quadrupole Coupling Constant,” Inorganic Chemistry 33 (1994): 1363–1365.

[27] D. W. James and W. H. Leong, “Structure of Molten Nitrates. III. Vibrational Spectra of LiNO₃, NaNO₃, and AgNO₃,” Journal of Chemical Physics 51, no. 2 (1969): 640–646.

[28] Y. Jie, X. Ren, R. Cao, W. Cai, and S. Jiao, “Advanced Liquid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Li Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 25 (2020): 1910777.

[29] G. Xu, X. Shangguan, S. Dong, X. Zhou, and G. Cui, “Formulation of Blended-Lithium-Salt Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 9 (2019): 3400–3415.

[30] R. Rodriguez, K. E. Loeffler, R. A. Edison, et al., “Effect of the Electrolyte on the Cycling Efficiency of Lithium-Limited Cells and Their Morphology Studied Through In Situ Optical Imaging,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 1, no. 11 (2018): 5830–5835.

[31] D. W. Kang, J. Moon, H.-Y. Choi, H.-C. Shin, and B. G. Kim, “Stable Cycling and Uniform Lithium Deposition in Anode-Free Lithium-Metal Batteries Enabled by a High-Concentration Dual-Salt Electrolyte With High LiNO₃ Content,” Journal of Power Sources 490 (2021): 229504.

[32] P. Tartaj, J. M. Amarilla, and M. B. Vazquez-Santos, “Aerosol-Assisted Synthesis of Colloidal Aggregates With Different Morphology: Toward the Electrochemical Optimization of Li₃VO₄ Battery Anodes Using Scalable Routes,” Chemistry of Materials 28, no. 3 (2016): 986–993.

[33] D. Aurbach, E. Pollak, R. Elazari, G. Salitra, C. S. Kelley, and J. Affinito, “On the Surface Chemical Aspects of Very High Energy Density, Rechargeable Li–Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 156, no. 8 (2009): A694–A702.

[34] L. Zheng, F. Guo, T. Kang, et al., “Stable Lithium-Carbon Composite Enabled by Dual-Salt Additives,” Nano-Micro Letters 13, no. 1 (2021): 111.

[35] T. Liu, H. Li, J. Yue, et al., “Ultralight Electrolyte for High-Energy Lithium Sulfur Pouch Cells,” Angewandte Chemie 133, no. 32 (2021): 17688–17696.

[36] F. Qiu, X. Li, H. Deng, et al., “A Concentrated Ternary-Salts Electrolyte for High Reversible Li Metal Battery With Slight Excess Li,” Advanced Energy Materials 9, no. 6 (2018): 1803372.

[37] J.-Y. Hwang, S.-J. Park, C. S. Yoon, and Y.-K. Sun, “Customizing a Li–Metal Battery That Survives Practical Operating Conditions for Electric Vehicle Applications,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 7 (2019): 2174–2184.

[38] J. Baran, M. Drozd, A. Pietraszko, M. Trzebiatowska, and H. Ratajczak, “Crystal Structure and Vibrational Studies of Glycine-LiNO₃ and Glycine-NaNO₃ Crystals,” Polskie Towarzystwo Chemiczne 77, no. 11 (2003): 1561–1577.

[39] Y. Liu, D. Lin, Y. Li, et al., “Solubility-Mediated Sustained Release Enabling Nitrate Additive in Carbonate Electrolytes for Stable Lithium Metal Anode,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 3656.

[40] L. Li and G. Pistoia, “Secondary Li Cells. II. Characteristics of Lithiated Manganese Oxides Synthesized From LiNO₃ and MnO₂,” Solid State Ionics 47, no. 3–4 (1991): 241–249.

[41] T. Wang, D. Mantha, and R. G. Reddy, “Thermal Stability of the Eutectic Composition in LiNO₃–NaNO₃–KNO₃ Ternary System Used for Thermal Energy Storage,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 100 (2012): 162–168.

[42] M. Mozurkewich, P. H. McMurry, A. Gupta, and J. G. Calvert, “Mass Accommodation Coefficient for HO₂ Radicals on Aqueous Particles,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 92, no. D4 (1987): 4163–4170.

[43] R. F. Bartholomew, “A Study of the Equilibrium KNO₃(l) ⇄ KNO₂(l) + 1/2O₂(g) Over the Temperature Range 550-750°,” Journal of Physical Chemistry 70 (1966): 3442–3446.

[44] C. Qu, Y. Chen, X. Yang, H. Zhang, X. Li, and H. Zhang, “LiNO₃-Free Electrolyte for Li-S Battery: A Solvent of Choice With Low K_Sp of Polysulfide and Low Dendrite of Lithium,” Nano Energy 39 (2017): 262–272.

[45] M. Venegas, M. Izquierdo, P. Rodrı́guez, and A. Lecuona, “Heat and Mass Transfer During Absorption of Ammonia Vapour by LiNO₃-NH₃ Solution Droplets,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 47, no. 12–13 (2004): 2653–2667.

[46] S. Yalçin, “A Review of Nuclear Hydrogen Production,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 14, no. 8 (1989): 551–561.

[47] E. S. Freeman, “The Kinetics of the Thermal Decomposition of Potassium Nitrate and of the Reaction Between Potassium Nitrite and Oxygen1a,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 79 (1957): 838–842.

[48] M. B. Mohammad, G. A. Brooks, and M. A. Rhamdhani, “Premelting, Melting, and Degradation Properties of Molten Alkali Nitrates: LiNO₃, NaNO₃, KNO₃, and Binary NaNO₃-KNO₃,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 49, no. 3 (2018): 1482–1498.

[49] S. S. Zhang, “Role of LiNO₃ in Rechargeable Lithium/Sulfur Battery,” Electrochimica Acta 70 (2012): 344–348.

[50] X.-Q. Zhang, X. Chen, L.-P. Hou, et al., “Regulating Anions in the Solvation Sheath of Lithium Ions for Stable Lithium Metal Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 4, no. 2 (2019): 411–416.

[51] J. Zhou, H. Lu, X. Zhou, et al., “Highly Efficient Lithium Utilization in Lithium Metal Full-Cell by Simulated Missile Guidance and Confinement Systems,” Science China Materials 64, no. 4 (2020): 830–839.

[52] Y. X. Yao, X. Q. Zhang, B. Q. Li, et al., “A Compact Inorganic Layer for Robust Anode Protection in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” InfoMat 2, no. 2 (2019): 379–388.

[53] C. Jiang, Q. Jia, M. Tang, et al., “Regulating the Solvation Sheath of Li Ions by Using Hydrogen Bonds for Highly Stable Lithium-Metal Anodes,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 19 (2021): 10871–10879.

[54] M. Wang, Z. Ren, H. Lin, et al., “Realizing Compact Lithium Deposition via Elaborative Nucleation and Growth Regulation for Stable Lithium-Metal Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 29 (2021): 34248–34257.

[55] P. Jaumaux, X. Yang, B. Zhang, et al., “Localized Water-In-Salt Electrolyte for Aqueous Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 326 (2021): 19965–19973.

[56] M. Nakayama, K. Watanabe, H. Ikuta, Y. Uchimoto, and M. Wakihara, “Grain Size Control of LiMn₂O₄ Cathode Material Using Microwave Synthesis Method,” Solid State Ionics 164, no. 1–2 (2003): 35–42.

[57] V. Giordani, W. Walker, V. S. Bryantsev, J. Uddin, G. V. Chase, and D. Addison, “Synergistic Effect of Oxygen and LiNO₃ on the Interfacial Stability of Lithium Metal in a Li/O₂ Battery,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 160, no. 9 (2013): A1544–A1550.

[58] W. Li, H. Yao, K. Yan, et al., “The Synergetic Effect of Lithium Polysulfide and Lithium Nitrate to Prevent Lithium Dendrite Growth,” Nature Communications 6, no. 1 (2015): 7436.

[59] X. Wang, S. Wang, H. Wang, et al., “Hybrid Electrolyte With Dual-Anion-Aggregated Solvation Sheath for Stabilizing High-Voltage Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Advanced Materials 33, no. 52 (2021): 2007945.

[60] Z. L. Brown, S. Heiskanen, and B. L. Lucht, “Using Triethyl Phosphate to Increase the Solubility of LiNO₃ in Carbonate Electrolytes for Improving the Performance of the Lithium Metal Anode,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 166, no. 12 (2019): A2523–A2527.

[61] X. Wang, H. Wang, M. Liu, and W. Li, “In-Plane Lithium Growth Enabled by Artificial Nitrate-Rich Layer: Fast Deposition Kinetics and Desolvation/Adsorption Mechanism,” Small 16, no. 28 (2020): 2000769.

[62] L. Chen, A. Lv, F. Guo, M. Wang, and S. Jiao, “Solid–Liquid Coexisting LiNO₃ Electrolyte for Extremely Stable Lithium Metal Anodes on a Bare Cu Foil,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8, no. 1 (2019): 706–713.

[63] S. Li, Q. Liu, X. Wang, et al., “Constructing a Phosphating–Nitriding Interface for Practically Used Lithium Metal Anode,” ACS Materials Letters 2, no. 1 (2019): 1–8.

[64] W. Jia, C. Fan, L. Wang, et al., “Extremely Accessible Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃) as the Highly Efficient Electrolyte Additive in Lithium Battery,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 24 (2016): 15399–15405.

[65] V. A. K. Adiraju, O. B. Chae, J. R. Robinson, and B. L. Lucht, “Highly Soluble Lithium Nitrate-Containing Additive for Carbonate-Based Electrolyte in Lithium Metal Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 8, no. 5 (2023): 2440–2446.

[66] I. Taniguchi and R. Tussupbayev, “Synthesis of LiFePO₄/C Nanocomposites by a Novel Process and Their Electrochemical Properties,” Chemical Engineering Journal 192 (2012): 334–342.

[67] L. Gao, W. Jiang, W. Wei, J. Yan, and Z. Tang, “Spontaneous Solid–Liquid Mixing at Low Temperature: A New Strategy for Synthesis of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ With Superior High-Power Performance,” Materials Letters 131 (2014): 324–327.

[68] J. Liu, M. Hou, J. Yi, et al., “Improving the Electrochemical Performance of Layered Lithium-Rich Transition-Metal Oxides by Controlling the Structural Defects,” Energy & Environmental Science 7, no. 2 (2014): 705–714.

[69] Z. Hu, S. Zhang, S. Dong, et al., “Poly(Ethyl a-Cyanoacrylate)-Based Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer for Enhanced Interface Stability of Li Metal Anodes,” Chemistry of Materials 29, no. 11 (2017): 4682–4689.

[70] G. Hou, X. Ma, Q. Sun, et al., “Lithium Dendrite Suppression and Enhanced Interfacial Compatibility Enabled by an Ex Situ SEI on Li Anode for LAGP-Based All-Solid-State Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 22 (2018): 18610–18618.

[71] Y. Zhu, X. He, and Y. Mo, “Strategies Based on Nitride Materials Chemistry to Stabilize Li Metal Anode,” Advanced Science 4, no. 8 (2017): 1600517.

[72] J. Zhu, J. Zheng, G. Cao, et al., “Flux-Free Synthesis of Single-Crystal LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ Boosts Its Electrochemical Performance in Lithium Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 464 (2020): 228207.

[73] S. Monisha, T. Mathavan, S. Selvasekarapandian, A. M. F. Benial, and M. P. Latha, “Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Acetate and Lithium Nitrate for Advanced Electrochemical Devices,” Ionics 23, no. 10 (2016): 2697–2706.

[74] S. Janakiraman, A. Surendran, S. Ghosh, S. Anandhan, and A. Venimadhav, “A New Strategy of PVDF Based Li-Salt Polymer Electrolyte Through Electrospinning for Lithium Battery Application,” Materials Research Express 6, no. 3 (2018): 035303.

[75] G. Saat, F. M. Balci, E. P. Alsaç, F. Karadas, and Ö. Dag, “Molten Salt Assisted Self-Assembly: Synthesis of Mesoporous LiCoO₂ and LiMn₂O₄ Thin Films and Investigation of Electrocatalytic Water Oxidation Performance of Lithium Cobaltate,” Small 14, no. 1 (2017): 1701913.

[76] Q. Zhao, X. Liu, J. Zheng, et al., “Designing Electrolytes With Polymerlike Glass-Forming Properties and Fast Ion Transport at Low Temperatures,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 421 (2020): 26053–26060.

[77] R. Chen, T. Zhao, J. Lu, et al., “Graphene-Based Three-Dimensional Hierarchical Sandwich-Type Architecture for High-Performance Li/S Batteries,” Nano Letters 13, no. 10 (2013): 4642–4649.

[78] F. Wu, J. T. Lee, E. Zhao, B. Zhang, and G. Yushin, “Graphene–Li₂S–Carbon Nanocomposite for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” ACS Nano 10, no. 1 (2015): 1333–1340.

[79] Q. Pang, A. Shyamsunder, B. Narayanan, C. Y. Kwok, L. A. Curtiss, and L. F. Nazar, “Tuning the Electrolyte Network Structure to Invoke Quasi-Solid State Sulfur Conversion and Suppress Lithium Dendrite Formation in Li–S Batteries,” Nature Energy 3, no. 9 (2018): 783–791.

[80] W. Xue, Z. Shi, L. Suo, et al., “Intercalation-Conversion Hybrid Cathodes Enabling Li–S Full-Cell Architectures With Jointly Superior Gravimetric and Volumetric Energy Densities,” Nature Energy 4, no. 5 (2019): 374–382.

[81] Y. Zhao, Y. Ye, F. Wu, Y. Li, L. Li, and R. Chen, “Anode Interface Engineering and Architecture Design for High-Performance Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 12 (2019): 1806532.

[82] Y. Xiao, B. Han, Y. Zeng, et al., “New Lithium Salt Forms Interphases Suppressing Both Li Dendrite and Polysulfide Shuttling,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 14 (2020): 1903937.

[83] D. Zheng, X. Q. Yang, and D. Qu, “Reaction Between Lithium Anode and Polysulfide Ions in a Lithium–Sulfur Battery,” Chemsuschem 9, no. 17 (2016): 2348–2350.

[84] S. Duangdangchote, A. Krittayavathananon, N. Phattharasupakun, and M. Sawangphurk., “The Protection of Lithium Metal Enabled by LiNO₃ for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 97, no. 7 (2020): 827–834.

[85] J. Holoubek, Q. Yan, H. Liu, et al., “Low-Cost Li∥SPAN Batteries Enabled by Sustained Additive Release,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 4, no. 7 (2021): 6422–6429.

[86] J. Wang, Y. S. He, and J. Yang, “Sulfur-Based Composite Cathode Materials for High-Energy Rechargeable Lithium Batteries,” Advanced Materials 27, no. 3 (2014): 569–575.

[87] T. Lei, W. Chen, W. Lv, et al., “Inhibiting Polysulfide Shuttling With a Graphene Composite Separator for Highly Robust Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Joule 2, no. 10 (2018): 2091–2104.

[88] H. Mao, L. Liu, L. Shi, et al., “High Loading Cotton Cellulose-Based Aerogel Self-Standing Electrode for Li-S Batteries,” Science Bulletin 65, no. 10 (2020): 803–811.

[89] Y.-X. Huang, F. Wu, and R.-J. Chen, “Thermodynamic Analysis and Kinetic Optimization of High-Energy Batteries Based on Multi-Electron Reactions,” National Science Review 7, no. 8 (2020): 1367–1386.

[90] X. Liang, Z. Wen, Y. Liu, et al., “Improved Cycling Performances of Lithium Sulfur Batteries With LiNO₃-Modified Electrolyte,” Journal of Power Sources 196, no. 22 (2011): 9839–9843.

[91] R. Xu, J. C. M. Li, J. Lu, K. Amine, and I. Belharouak, “Demonstration of Highly Efficient Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3, no. 8 (2015): 4170–4179.

[92] C.-Z. Zhao, X.-B. Cheng, R. Zhang, et al., “Li₂S₅-Based Ternary-Salt Electrolyte for Robust Lithium Metal Anode,” Energy Storage Materials 3 (2016): 77–84.

[93] L. Zhang, M. Ling, J. Feng, L. Mai, G. Liu, and J. Guo, “The Synergetic Interaction Between LiNO₃ and Lithium Polysulfides for Suppressing Shuttle Effect of Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 11 (2018): 24–29.

[94] S. Xiong, K. Xie, Y. Diao, and X. Hong, “Characterization of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase on Lithium Anode for Preventing the Shuttle Mechanism in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 246 (2014): 840–845.

[95] C. X. Bi, N. Yao, X. Y. Li, et al., “Unveiling the Reaction Mystery Between Lithium Polysulfides and Lithium Metal Anode in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 41 (2024): 2411197.

[96] S. S. Zhang, “A New Finding on the Role of LiNO₃ in Lithium-Sulfur Battery,” Journal of Power Sources 322 (2016): 99–105.

[97] A. Jozwiuk, B. B. Berkes, T. Weiß, et al., “The Critical Role of Lithium Nitrate in the Gas Evolution of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 9, no. 8 (2016): 2603–2608.

[98] M. Sun, X. Wang, J. Wang, H. Yang, L. Wang, and T. Liu, “Assessment on the Self-Discharge Behavior of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries With LiNO₃-Possessing Electrolytes,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 41 (2018): 35175–35183.

[99] Y. Ye, M.-K. Song, Y. Xu, et al., “Lithium Nitrate: A Double-Edged Sword in the Rechargeable Lithium-Sulfur Cell,” Energy Storage Materials 16 (2019): 498–504.

[100] H. Schneider, T. Weiß, C. Scordilis-Kelley, et al., “Electrolyte Decomposition and Gas Evolution in a Lithium-Sulfur Cell Upon Long-Term Cycling,” Electrochimica Acta 243 (2017): 26–32.

[101] L. Huang, T. Lu, G. Xu, et al., “Thermal Runaway Routes of Large-Format Lithium-Sulfur Pouch Cell Batteries,” Joule 6, no. 4 (2022): 906–922.

[102] F. Jiang, Y.-F. Du, J.-X. Guo, et al., “Thermoresponsive Solid Electrolyte Interphase Enables Safe Lithium–Sulfur Batteries With High Energy Density,” Energy & Environmental Science 18, no. 10 (2025): 4925–4933.

[103] J.-X. Guo, F. Jiang, N.-L. Shen, et al., “Host–Guest Interactions for Electrochemically Stable and Thermally Safe Lithium Metal Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 9, no. 10 (2024): 4800–4809.

[104] Y. Wu, Z. Zeng, H. Zhang, et al., “Constructing Thermo-Responsive Polysiloxane Shields via Lithium Initiation to Inhibit Thermal Runaway of Lithium Metal Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 70 (2024): 103499.

[105] S. Xin, Z. Chang, X. Zhang, and Y.-G. Guo, “Progress of Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries Based on Conversion Reactions,” National Science Review 4, no. 1 (2017): 54–70.

[106] Z. Peng, S. A. Freunberger, Y. Chen, and P. G. Bruce, “A Reversible and Higher-Rate Li-O₂ Battery,” Science 337 (2012): 563–566.

[107] C. Wang, Z. Zhang, W. Liu, et al., “Enzyme-Inspired Room-Temperature Lithium Oxygen Chemistry via Reversible Cleavage and Formation of Dioxygen Bonds,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 41 (2020): 17856–17863.

[108] L. Liu, H. Guo, L. Fu, et al., “Critical Advances in Ambient Air Operation of Nonaqueous Rechargeable Li–Air Batteries,” Small 17, no. 9 (2019): 1903854.

[109] C. Li, J. Wei, P. Li, et al., “A Dendrite-Free Li Plating Host Towards High Utilization of Li Metal Anode in Li–O₂ Battery,” Science Bulletin 64, no. 7 (2019): 478–484.

[110] J. Lai, H. Liu, Y. Xing, et al., “Local Strong Solvation Electrolyte Trade-Off Between Capacity and Cycle Life of Li–O₂ Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 40 (2021): 2101831.

[111] J. Lu, L. Li, J.-B. Park, Y. K. Sun, F. Wu, and K. Amine, “Aprotic and Aqueous Li–O₂ Batteries,” Chemical Reviews 114, no. 11 (2014): 5611–5640.

[112] J. Lai, Y. Xing, N. Chen, L. Li, F. Wu, and R. Chen, “Electrolytes for Rechargeable Lithium–Air Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 8 (2019): 2974–2997.

[113] V. S. Bryantsev, J. Uddin, V. Giordani, W. Walker, D. Addison, and G. V. Chase, “The Identification of Stable Solvents for Nonaqueous Rechargeable Li-Air Batteries,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 160, no. 1 (2012): A160–A171.

[114] V. S. Bryantsev, V. Giordani, W. Walker, et al., “Investigation of Fluorinated Amides for Solid–Electrolyte Interphase Stabilization in Li–O₂ Batteries Using Amide-Based Electrolytes,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 117, no. 23 (2013): 11977–11988.

[115] Q. Wang, Z. Yao, C. Zhao, et al., “Interface Chemistry of an Amide Electrolyte for Highly Reversible Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nature Communications 11, no. 1 (2020): 4188.

[116] W. Walker, V. Giordani, J. Uddin, V. S. Bryantsev, G. V. Chase, and D. Addison, “A Rechargeable Li–O₂ Battery Using a Lithium Nitrate/N,N-Dimethylacetamide Electrolyte,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 135, no. 6 (2013): 2076–2079.

[117] J. Uddin, V. S. Bryantsev, V. Giordani, W. Walker, G. V. Chase, and D. Addison, “Lithium Nitrate as Regenerable SEI Stabilizing Agent for Rechargeable Li/O₂ Batteries,” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 4, no. 21 (2013): 3760–3765.

[118] E. Yoo, Y. Qiao, and H. Zhou, “Understanding the Effect of the Concentration of LiNO₃ Salt in Li–O₂ Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 31 (2019): 18318–18323.

[119] D. Sharon, D. Hirsberg, M. Afri, et al., “Catalytic Behavior of Lithium Nitrate in Li–O₂ Cells,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 7, no. 30 (2015): 16590–16600.

[120] Rosy, S. Akabayov, M. Leskes, and M. Noked, “Bifunctional Role of LiNO₃ in Li–O₂ Batteries: Deconvoluting Surface and Catalytic Effects,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 35 (2018): 29622–29629.

[121] V. Giordani, D. Tozier, H. Tan, et al., “A Molten Salt Lithium–Oxygen Battery,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 138, no. 8 (2016): 2656–2663.

[122] X.-D. Lin, Y. Gu, X.-R. Shen, et al., “An Oxygen-Blocking Oriented Multifunctional Solid–Electrolyte Interphase as a Protective Layer for a Lithium Metal Anode in Lithium–Oxygen Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 14, no. 3 (2021): 1439–1448.

[123] Y. Yu, G. Huang, J.-Y. Du, et al., “A Renaissance of N,N-Dimethylacetamide-Based Electrolytes to Promote the Cycling Stability of Li–O₂ Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 13, no. 9 (2020): 3075–3081.

[124] E. Yoo and H. Zhou, “LiF Protective Layer on a Li Anode: Toward Improving the Performance of Li–O₂ Batteries With a Redox Mediator,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 16 (2020): 18490–18495.

[125] D. Xu, Z. Wang, J. Xu, L. Zhang, and X. Zhang, “Novel DMSO-Based Electrolyte for High Performance Rechargeable Li–O₂ Batteries,” Chemical Communications 48, no. 55 (2012): 6948.

[126] B. Sun, X. Huang, S. Chen, J. Zhang, and G. Wang, “An Optimized LiNO₃/DMSO Electrolyte for High-Performance Rechargeable Li–O₂ Batteries,” RSC Advances 4, no. 22 (2014): 11115–11120.

[127] N. Togasaki, T. Momma, and T. Osaka, “Enhanced Cycling Performance of a Li Metal Anode in a Dimethylsulfoxide-Based Electrolyte Using Highly Concentrated Lithium Salt for a Lithium−Oxygen Battery,” Journal of Power Sources 307 (2016): 98–104.

[128] S. M. Ahn, J. Suk, D. Y. Kim, Y. Kang, H. K. Kim, and D. W. Kim, “High-Performance Lithium-Oxygen Battery Electrolyte Derived From Optimum Combination of Solvent and Lithium Salt,” Advanced Science 4, no. 10 (2017): 1700235.

[129] S. J. Kang, T. Mori, S. Narizuka, W. Wilcke, and H.-C. Kim, “Deactivation of Carbon Electrode for Elimination of Carbon Dioxide Evolution From Rechargeable Lithium–Oxygen Cells,” Nature Communications 5, no. 1 (2014): 3937.

[130] X. Xin, K. Ito, and Y. Kubo, “Highly Efficient Br⁻/NO₃⁻ Dual-Anion Electrolyte for Suppressing Charging Instabilities of Li–O₂ Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 9, no. 31 (2017): 25976–25984.

[131] X. Xin, K. Ito, A. Dutta, and Y. Kubo, “Dendrite-Free Epitaxial Growth of Lithium Metal During Charging in Li–O₂ Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57, no. 40 (2018): 13206–13210.

[132] A. Ahmadiparidari, S. Fuladi, L. Majidi, et al., “Enhancing the Performance of Lithium Oxygen Batteries Through Combining Redox Mediating Salts With a Lithium Protecting Salt,” Journal of Power Sources 491 (2021): 229506.

[133] G. Karkera and A. S. Prakash, “An Inorganic Electrolyte Li–O₂ Battery With High Rate and Improved Performance,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 1, no. 3 (2018): 1381–1388.

[134] B. Radhakrishnan, J. B. Haskins, K. B. Knudsen, B. D. McCloskey, and J. W. Lawson, “First-Principles Computational and Experimental Investigation of Molten-Salt Electrolytes: Implications for Li–O₂ Battery,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C 125, no. 7 (2021): 3698–3705.

[135] D. Wang, J. Yang, P. He, and H. Zhou, “A Low-Charge-Overpotential Lithium-CO₂ Cell Based on a Binary Molten Salt Electrolyte,” Energy & Environmental Science 14, no. 7 (2021): 4107–4114.

[136] C. Niu, H. Lee, S. Chen, et al., “High-Energy Lithium Metal Pouch Cells With Limited Anode Swelling and Long Stable Cycles,” Nature Energy 4, no. 7 (2019): 551–559.

[137] X. Wang, W. Mai, X. Guan, et al., “Recent Advances of Electroplating Additives Enabling Lithium Metal Anodes to Applicable Battery Techniques,” Energy & Environmental Materials 4, no. 3 (2020): 284–292.

[138] Y. Gao, M. Guo, K. Yuan, et al., “Multifunctional Silanization Interface for High-Energy and Low-Gassing Lithium Metal Pouch Cells,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 4 (2019): 1903362.

[139] Y. Han, B. Liu, Z. Xiao, et al., “Interface Issues of Lithium Metal Anode for High-Energy Batteries: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives,” InfoMat 3, no. 2 (2021): 155–174.

[140] S. Ye, L. Wang, F. Liu, et al., “g-C₃N₄ Derivative Artificial Organic/Inorganic Composite Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer for Stable Lithium Metal Anode,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 44 (2020): 2002647.

[141] Y. Zhou, X. Zhang, Y. Ding, et al., “Redistributing Li-Ion Flux by Parallelly Aligned Holey Nanosheets for Dendrite-Free Li Metal Anodes,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 38 (2020): 2003920.

[142] K. Xu, “Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium Based Rechargeable Batteries,” Chemical Reviews 104, no. 10 (2004): 4303–4418.

[143] J.-G. Zhang, W. Xu, J. Xiao, X. Cao, and J. Liu, “Lithium Metal Anodes With Nonaqueous Electrolytes,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 24 (2020): 13312–13348.

[144] S. Yuan, T. Kong, Y. Zhang, et al., “Advanced Electrolyte Design for High-Energy-Density Li-Metal Batteries Under Practical Conditions,” Angewandte Chemie 133, no. 49 (2021): 25828–25842.

[145] Q. Shi, Y. Zhong, M. Wu, H. Wang, and H. Wang, “High Capacity Rechargeable Batteries Based on Deeply Cyclable Lithium Metal Anodes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 22 (2018): 5676–5680.

[146] Q. Liu, Y. Xu, J. Wang, B. Zhao, Z. Li, and H. B. Wu, “Sustained-Release Nanocapsules Enable Long-Lasting Stabilization of Li Anode for Practical Li-Metal Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 12, no. 1 (2020): 176.

[147] Y. Liu, X. Qin, D. Zhou, et al., “A Biscuit-Like Separator Enabling High Performance Lithium Batteries by Continuous and Protected Releasing of NO₃⁻ in Carbonate Electrolyte,” Energy Storage Materials 24 (2020): 229–236.

[148] H. Liu, X. Yue, X. Xing, et al., “A Scalable 3D Lithium Metal Anode,” Energy Storage Materials 16 (2019): 505–511.

[149] S. Choudhury, S. Stalin, D. Vu, et al., “Solid-State Polymer Electrolytes for High-Performance Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 4398.

[150] Z. Wang, K. Yang, Y. Song, et al., “Polymer Matrix Mediated Solvation of LiNO₃ in Carbonate Electrolytes for Quasi-Solid High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nano Research 13, no. 9 (2020): 2431–2437.

[151] Z. Jiang, L. Jin, Z. Zeng, and J. Xie, “Facile Preparation of a Stable 3D Host for Lithium Metal Anodes,” Chemical Communications 56, no. 68 (2020): 9898–9900.

[152] J.-I. Lee, S. Cho, T. T. Vu, et al., “Hybrid Polyion Complex Micelles Enabling High-Performance Lithium-Metal Batteries With Universal Carbonates,” Energy Storage Materials 38 (2021): 509–519.

[153] S. Stuckenberg, M. M. Bela, C. T. Lechtenfeld, et al., “Influence of LiNO₃ on the Lithium Metal Deposition Behavior in Carbonate-Based Liquid Electrolytes and on the Electrochemical Performance in Zero-Excess Lithium Metal Batteries,” Small 20, no. 6 (2023): 2305203.

[154] J. Wei, Z. Guo, F. Wang, et al., “Full Gradient Compensation of LiNO₃ in the Suspension Electrolyte for Lithium Metal Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 603 (2024): 234452.

[155] H. Yang, Q. Liu, Y. Wang, et al., “An Interlayer Containing Dissociated LiNO₃ With Fast Release Speed for Stable Lithium Metal Batteries With 400 Wh kg⁻¹ Energy Density,” Small 18, no. 25 (2022): 2202349.

[156] J. Lang, L. Qi, Y. Luo, and H. Wu, “High Performance Lithium Metal Anode: Progress and Prospects,” Energy Storage Materials 7 (2017): 115–129.

[157] C. Yan, X. B. Cheng, Y. X. Yao, et al., “An Armored Mixed Conductor Interphase on a Dendrite-Free Lithium-Metal Anode,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 45 (2018): 1804461.

[158] Z. Wang, Y. Wang, C. Wu, W. K. Pang, J. Mao, and Z. Guo, “Constructing Nitrided Interfaces for Stabilizing Li Metal Electrodes in Liquid Electrolytes,” Chemical Science 12, no. 26 (2021): 8945–8966.

[159] M. Liu, Z. Cheng, K. Qian, T. Verhallen, C. Wang, and M. Wagemaker, “Efficient Li-Metal Plating/Stripping in Carbonate Electrolytes Using a LiNO₃-Gel Polymer Electrolyte, Monitored by Operando Neutron Depth Profiling,” Chemistry of Materials 31, no. 12 (2019): 4564–4574.

[160] L. Li, Y. Deng, H. Duan, Y. Qian, and G. Chen, “LiF and LiNO₃ as Synergistic Additives for PEO-PVDF/LLZTO-Based Composite Electrolyte Towards High-Voltage Lithium Batteries With Dual-Interfaces Stability,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 65 (2022): 319–328.

[161] C. Yan, Y. X. Yao, X. Chen, et al., “Lithium Nitrate Solvation Chemistry in Carbonate Electrolyte Sustains High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 57, no. 43 (2018): 14055–14059.

[162] C. Yan, H.-R. Li, X. Chen, et al., “Regulating the Inner Helmholtz Plane for Stable Solid Electrolyte Interphase on Lithium Metal Anodes,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 141, no. 23 (2019): 9422–9429.

[163] W. Zhang, Q. Wu, J. Huang, et al., “Colossal Granular Lithium Deposits Enabled by the Grain-Coarsening Effect for High-Efficiency Lithium Metal Full Batteries,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 24 (2020): 2001740.

[164] X. Wang, S. Li, W. Zhang, et al., “Dual-Salt-Additive Electrolyte Enables High-Voltage Lithium Metal Full Batteries Capable of Fast-Charging Ability,” Nano Energy 89 (2021): 106353.

[165] S. Li, W. Zhang, Q. Wu, et al., “Synergistic Dual-Additive Electrolyte Enables Practical Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 35 (2020): 14935–14941.

[166] R. Xu, X. Shen, X.-X. Ma, et al., “Identifying the Critical Anion Cation Coordination to Regulate the Electric Double Layer for an Efficient Lithium-Metal Anode Interface,” Angewandte Chemie 133, no. 8 (2021): 4261–4266.

[167] D. Xiao, Q. Li, D. Luo, et al., “Establishing the Preferential Adsorption of Anion-Dominated Solvation Structures in the Electrolytes for High-Energy-Density Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 30 (2021): 2011109.

[168] W. Zhang, Z. Shen, S. Li, et al., “Engineering Wavy-Nanostructured Anode Interphases With Fast Ion Transfer Kinetics: Toward Practical Li-Metal Full Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 39 (2020): 2003800.

[169] I. Phiri, J. Kim, D.-H. Oh, et al., “Synergistic Effect of a Dual-Salt Liquid Electrolyte With a LiNO₃ Functional Additive Toward Stabilizing Thin-Film Li Metal Electrodes for Li Secondary Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 27 (2021): 31605–31613.

[170] R. May, K. J. Fritzsching, D. Livitz, S. R. Denny, and L. E. Marbella, “Rapid Interfacial Exchange of Li Ions Dictates High Coulombic Efficiency in Li Metal Anodes,” ACS Energy Letters 6 (2021): 1162–1169.

[171] Z. Wen, W. Fang, F. Wang, et al., “Dual-Salt Electrolyte Additive Enables High Moisture Tolerance and Favorable Electric Double Layer for Lithium Metal Battery,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 13 (2024): e202314876.

[172] Y. Gao, G. Wu, W. Fang, et al., “Transesterification Induced Multifunctional Additives Enable High-Performance Lithium Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 22 (2024): e202403668.

[173] H. Yue, Y. Yang, Y. Xiao, et al., “Boron Additive Passivated Carbonate Electrolytes for Stable Cycling of 5 V Lithium–Metal Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 2 (2019): 594–602.

[174] Z. Sun, J. Yang, H. Xu, et al., “Enabling an Inorganic-Rich Interface via Cationic Surfactant for High-Performance Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nano-Micro Letters 16, no. 1 (2024): 141.

[175] Y. Jie, X. Liu, Z. Lei, et al., “Enabling High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries by Manipulating Solvation Structure in Ester Electrolyte,” Angewandte Chemie 132, no. 9 (2020): 3533–3538.

[176] S. Zhang, G. Yang, Z. Liu, et al., “Competitive Solvation Enhanced Stability of Lithium Metal Anode in Dual-Salt Electrolyte,” Nano Letters 21, no. 7 (2021): 3310–3317.

[177] H. Yang, X. Chen, N. Yao, et al., “Dissolution–Precipitation Dynamics in Ester Electrolyte for High-Stability Lithium Metal Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 6, no. 4 (2021): 1413–1421.

[178] J. Fu, X. Ji, J. Chen, et al., “Lithium Nitrate Regulated Sulfone Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie 132, no. 49 (2020): 22378–22385.

[179] S. Liu, X. Ji, N. Piao, et al., “An Inorganic-Rich Solid Electrolyte Interphase for Advanced Lithium-Metal Batteries in Carbonate Electrolytes,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 7 (2021): 3661–3671.

[180] S.-J. Tan, J. Yue, X.-C. Hu, et al., “Nitriding-Interface-Regulated Lithium Plating Enables Flame-Retardant Electrolytes for High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie 131, no. 23 (2019): 7884–7889.

[181] T. Zheng, J. Xiong, X. Shi, et al., “Cocktail Therapy Towards High Temperature/High Voltage Lithium Metal Battery via Solvation Sheath Structure Tuning,” Energy Storage Materials 38 (2021): 599–608.

[182] Y. Liang, W. Wu, D. Li, et al., “Highly Stable Lithium Metal Batteries by Regulating the Lithium Nitrate Chemistry With a Modified Eutectic Electrolyte,” Advanced Energy Materials 12, no. 47 (2022): 2202493.

[183] Z. Piao, P. Xiao, R. Luo, et al., “Constructing a Stable Interface Layer by Tailoring Solvation Chemistry in Carbonate Electrolytes for High-Performance Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Advanced Materials 34, no. 8 (2022): 2108400.

[184] C. Zhou, L. Zheng, T. He, et al., “Rational Design of a Carbonate-Glyme Hybrid Electrolyte for Practical Anode-Free Lithium Metal Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 42 (2021): 295–306.

[185] S.-J. Zhang, Z.-W. Yin, Z.-Y. Wu, et al., “Achievement of High-Cyclability and High-Voltage Li-Metal Batteries by Heterogeneous SEI Film With Internal Ionic Conductivity/External Electronic Insulativity Hybrid Structure,” Energy Storage Materials 40 (2021): 337–346.

[186] X.-Q. Zhang, X. Chen, X.-B. Cheng, et al., “Highly Stable Lithium Metal Batteries Enabled by Regulating the Solvation of Lithium Ions in Nonaqueous Electrolytes,” Angewandte Chemie 130, no. 19 (2018): 5399–5403.

[187] N. Piao, S. Liu, B. Zhang, et al., “Lithium Metal Batteries Enabled by Synergetic Additives in Commercial Carbonate Electrolytes,” ACS Energy Letters 6, no. 5 (2021): 1839–1848.

[188] Z. Jin, Y. Liu, H. Xu, T. Chen, and C. Wang, “Intrinsic Solubilization of Lithium Nitrate in Ester Electrolyte by Multivalent Low-Entropy-Penalty Design for Stable Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 10 (2024): e202318197.

[189] Q. Wang, C. Zhao, Z. Yao, et al., “Entropy-Driven Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 17 (2023): 2210677.

[190] X. Ren, S. Chen, H. Lee, et al., “Localized High-Concentration Sulfone Electrolytes for High-Efficiency Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Chem 4, no. 8 (2018): 1877–1892.

[191] M. Jia, C. Zhang, Y. Guo, et al., “Advanced Nonflammable Localized High-Concentration Electrolyte for High Energy Density Lithium Battery,” Energy & Environmental Materials 5, no. 4 (2022): 1294–1302.

[192] W. Fang, Z. Wen, L. Chen, et al., “Constructing Inorganic-Rich Solid Electrolyte Interphase via Abundant Anionic Solvation Sheath in Commercial Carbonate Electrolytes,” Nano Energy 104 (2022): 107881.

[193] D. Chai, H. Yan, X. Wang, X. Li, and Y. Fu, “Retuning Solvating Ability of Ether Solvent by Anion Chemistry Toward 4.5 V Class Li Metal Battery,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 8 (2023): 2310516.

[194] Y. Jie, Y. Xu, Y. Chen, et al., “Molecular Understanding of Interphase Formation via Operando Polymerization on Lithium Metal Anode,” Cell Reports Physical Science 3, no. 10 (2022): 101057.

[195] X. Zhang, Y. Wang, Z. Ouyang, et al., “Dual-Functional Lithium Nitrate Mediator Eliminating Water Hazard for Practical Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 6 (2023): 2303048.

[196] F. Lorandi, T. Liu, M. Fantin, et al., “Comparative Performance of Ex Situ Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphases for Li Metal Batteries With Liquid Electrolytes,” iScience 24, no. 6 (2021): 102578.

[197] C. Ma, G. Mu, H. Lv, et al., “In Situ-Formed Flexible Three-Dimensional Honeycomb-Like Film for a LiF/Li₃N-Enriched Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Interphase on the Li Metal Anode,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 5, no. 13 (2021): 5082–5092.

[198] Q. Jin, K. Zhao, L. Li, et al., “Tailoring the Spatial Distribution and Content of Inorganic Nitrides in Solid–Electrolyte Interphases for the Stable Li Anode in Li–S Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Materials 5, no. 4 (2021): 1180–1188.

[199] L. Fu, X. Wang, L. Wang, et al., “A Salt-in-Metal Anode: Stabilizing the Solid Electrolyte Interphase to Enable Prolonged Battery Cycling,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 19 (2021): 2010602.

[200] S. Liu, X. Xia, S. Deng, et al., “In Situ Solid Electrolyte Interphase From Spray Quenching on Molten Li: A New Way to Construct High-Performance Lithium-Metal Anodes,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 3 (2018): 1806470.

[201] D. Jin, Y. Roh, T. Jo, M. Ryou, H. Lee, and Y. M. Lee, “Robust Cycling of Ultrathin Li Metal Enabled by Nitrate-Preplanted Li Powder Composite,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 18 (2021): 2003769.

[202] L.-N. Wu, J. Peng, F.-M. Han, et al., “Suppressing Lithium Dendrite Growth by a Synergetic Effect of Uniform Nucleation and Inhibition,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 8 (2020): 4300–4307.

[203] Y. Guo, P. Niu, Y. Liu, et al., “An Autotransferable g-C₃N₄ Li⁺-Modulating Layer Toward Stable Lithium Anodes,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 27 (2019): 1900342.

[204] S. Han, J. Park, W. Lu, and A. M. Sastry, “Numerical Study of Grain Boundary Effect on Li⁺ Effective Diffusivity and Intercalation-Induced Stresses in Li-Ion Battery Active Materials,” Journal of Power Sources 240 (2013): 155–167.

[205] Y. Gao, F. Qiao, J. You, et al., “Regulating Electrodeposition Behavior Through Enhanced Mass Transfer for Stable Lithium Metal Anodes,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 55 (2021): 580–587.

[206] F. Guo, C. Wu, H. Chen, et al., “Dendrite-Free Lithium Deposition by Coating a Lithiophilic Heterogeneous Metal Layer on Lithium Metal Anode,” Energy Storage Materials 24 (2020): 635–643.

[207] H. Wang, M. Liu, X. Wang, et al., “A Self-Smoothing Li-Metal Anode Enabled via a Hybrid Interface Film,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 24 (2020): 12045–12054.

[208] J. Meng, F. Chu, J. Hu, and C. Li, “Liquid Polydimethylsiloxane Grafting to Enable Dendrite-Free Li Plating for Highly Reversible Li-Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 29, no. 30 (2019): 1902220.

[209] C. Zhang, Q. Lan, Y. Liu, et al., “A Dual-Layered Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase Formed by Controlled Electrochemical Reduction of LiTFSI/DME-LiNO₃ for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anode,” Electrochimica Acta 306 (2019): 407–419.

[210] W. Lu, L. Sun, Y. Zhao, et al., “Elongating the Cycle Life of Lithium Metal Batteries in Carbonate Electrolyte With Gradient Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer,” Energy Storage Materials 34 (2021): 241–249.

[211] S. Kim, S. O. Park, M.-Y. Lee, et al., “Stable Electrode-Electrolyte Interfaces Constructed by Fluorine- and Nitrogen-Donating Ionic Additives for High-Performance Lithium Metal Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 45 (2022): 1–13.

[212] S. Kim, T. K. Lee, S. K. Kwak, and N.-S. Choi, “Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layers by Using Lithiophilic and Electrochemically Active Ionic Additives for Lithium Metal Anodes,” ACS Energy Letters 7, no. 1 (2021): 67–69.

[213] Y. Rao, X. Li, S. Zhao, et al., “Fluorinated Electrolyte Formulations Design Enabling High-Voltage and Long-Life Lithium Metal Batteries,” Nano Energy 123 (2024): 109362.

[214] H. Moon, S. J. Cho, D. E. Yu, and S. Y. Lee, “Nitrile Electrolyte Strategy for 4.9 V-Class Lithium-Metal Batteries Operating in Flame,” Energy & Environmental Materials 6, no. 3 (2022): e12383.

[215] C. Liao, L. Han, W. Wang, et al., “Non-Flammable Electrolyte With Lithium Nitrate as the Only Lithium Salt for Boosting Ultra-Stable Cycling and Fire-Safety Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 17 (2023): 2212605.

[216] W. Wahyudi, V. Ladelta, L. Tsetseris, et al., “Lithium-Ion Desolvation Induced by Nitrate Additives Reveals New Insights Into High Performance Lithium Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 23 (2021): 2101593.

[217] N. A. Sahalie, A. A. Assegie, W.-N. Su, et al., “Effect of Bifunctional Additive Potassium Nitrate on Performance of Anode Free Lithium Metal Battery in Carbonate Electrolyte,” Journal of Power Sources 437 (2019): 226912.

[218] L. Fu, X. Wang, Z. Chen, et al., “Insights on “Nitrate Salt” in Lithium Anode for Stabilized Solid Electrolyte Interphase,” Carbon Energy 4, no. 1 (2022): 12–20.

[219] S. Gu, S. W. Zhang, J. Han, et al., “Nitrate Additives Coordinated With Crown Ether Stabilize Lithium Metal Anodes in Carbonate Electrolyte,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 28 (2021): 2102128.

[220] J. S. Kim, T. H. Hwang, B. G. Kim, J. Min, and J. W. Choi, “A Lithium-Sulfur Battery With a High Areal Energy Density,” Advanced Functional Materials 24, no. 34 (2014): 5359–5367.

[221] L. Jin, H. Zhang, S. Li, et al., “Exchange of Li and AgNO₃ Enabling Stable 3D Lithium Metal Anodes With Embedded Lithophilic Nanoparticles and a Solid Electrolyte Interphase Inducer,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 32 (2021): 38425–38431.

[222] H. Kang, T.-H. Kim, G. Hwang, et al., “Stabilizing a Lithium Metal Anode Through the Sustainable Release of a Multi-Functional AgNO₃ Additive,” Chemical Engineering Journal 484 (2024): 149510.

[223] S. H. Lee, J. Y. Hwang, J. Ming, et al., “Toward the Sustainable Lithium Metal Batteries With a New Electrolyte Solvation Chemistry,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 20 (2020): 2000567.

[224] Y. Zhong, Y. Xie, S. Hwang, et al., “A Highly Efficient All-Solid-State Lithium Electrolyte Interface Induced by an Energetic Reaction,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 59, no. 33 (2020): 14003–14008.

[225] R. Zhao, X. Li, Y. Si, S. Tang, W. Guo, and Y. Fu, “Cu(NO₃)₂ as Efficient Electrolyte Additive for 4 V Class Li Metal Batteries With Ultrahigh Stability,” Energy Storage Materials 37 (2021): 1–7.

[226] S. Liu, G.-R. Li, and X.-P. Gao, “Lanthanum Nitrate as Electrolyte Additive to Stabilize the Surface Morphology of Lithium Anode for Lithium–Sulfur Battery,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 12 (2016): 7783–7789.

[227] J. Li, L. Zhang, F. Qin, et al., “ZrO(NO₃)₂ as a Functional Additive to Suppress the Diffusion of Polysulfides in Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 442 (2019): 227232.

[228] C. Chen, Q. Liang, G. Wang, D. Liu, and X. Xiong, “Grain-Boundary-Rich Artificial SEI Layer for High-Rate Lithium Metal Anodes,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 4 (2021): 2107249.

[229] A. G. Paul-Orecchio, L. Stockton, J. A. Weeks, A. Dolocan, Y. Wang, and C. B. Mullins, “Alloying Indium Additive Enables Fast-Charging Lithium Metal Batteries,” ACS Energy Letters 8, no. 10 (2023): 4228–4234.

[230] Y. Zhu, X. Li, Y. Si, X. Zhang, P. Sang, and Y. Fu, “Regulating Dissolution Chemistry of Nitrates in Carbonate Electrolyte for High-Stable Lithium Metal Batteries,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 73 (2022): 422–428.

[231] Z. Wang, L. P. Hou, Z. Li, et al., “Highly Soluble Organic Nitrate Additives for Practical Lithium Metal Batteries,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 1 (2022): e283.

[232] L.-P. Hou, N. Yao, J. Xie, et al., “Modification of Nitrate Ion Enables Stable Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium Metal Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 61, no. 20 (2022): e202201406.

[233] K. Su, P. Luo, Y. Wu, et al., “New Nitrate Additive Enabling Highly Stable and Conductive SEI for Fast-Charging Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 49 (2024): 2409492.

[234] G. Huang, Y. Liao, X. Zhao, et al., “Tuning a Solvation Structure of Lithium Ions Coordinated With Nitrate Anions Through Ionic Liquid-Based Solvent for Highly Stable Lithium Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 6 (2022): 2211364.

[235] Y. Wen, J. Ding, Y. Yang, et al., “Introducing NO₃⁻ Into Carbonate-Based Electrolytes via Covalent Organic Framework to Incubate Stable Interface for Li-Metal Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 15 (2021): 2109377.

[236] J. Yu, X. Ma, X. Zou, et al., “Achieving Stable Lithium Metal Anodes via the Synergy of Electrostatic Shielding and the High Li⁺ Flux Inorganic Interphase,” Energy & Environmental Science 17, no. 13 (2024): 4519–4530.

[237] Z. Jiang, Z. Zeng, C. Yang, et al., “Nitrofullerene, a C₆₀-Based Bifunctional Additive With Smoothing and Protecting Effects for Stable Lithium Metal Anode,” Nano Letters 19, no. 12 (2019): 8780–8786.

[238] Y. Luo, T. Li, H. Zhang, et al., “Endogenous Symbiotic Li₃N Cellulose Skin to Extend the Cycle Life of Lithium Anode,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 21 (2021): 11718–11724.

[239] G. G. Eshetu, X. Judez, C. Li, et al., “Lithium Azide as An Electrolyte Additive for All-Solid-State Lithium–Sulfur Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 56, no. 48 (2017): 15368–15372.

[240] C. Gao, K. Sun, B. Hong, K. Zhang, Z. Zhang, and Y. Lai, “Guided Dendrite-Free Lithium Deposition Through Titanium Nitride Additive in Li Metal Batteries,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 45, no. 53 (2020): 28294–28302.

[241] Y. Zhu, F. Meng, N. Sun, et al., “Suppressing Sponge-Like Li Deposition via AlN-Modified Substrate for Stable Li Metal Anode,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 45 (2019): 42261–42270.

[242] J. Wu, X. Li, Z. Rao, et al., “Electrolyte With Boron Nitride Nanosheets as Leveling Agent Towards Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes,” Nano Energy 72 (2020): 104725.

[243] Q. Dong, B. Hong, H. Fan, H. Jiang, K. Zhang, and Y. Lai, “Inducing the Formation of In Situ Li₃N-Rich SEI via Nanocomposite Plating of Mg₃N₂ With Lithium Enables High-Performance 3D Lithium-Metal Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 1 (2020): 627–636.

[244] X. Luan, C. Wang, C. Wang, X. Gu, J. Yang, and Y. Qian, “Stable Lithium Deposition Enabled by an Acid-Treated g-C₃N₄ Interface Layer for a Lithium Metal Anode,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 9 (2020): 11265–11272.

[245] M. Lei, J.-G. Wang, L. Ren, et al., “Highly Lithiophilic Cobalt Nitride Nanobrush as a Stable Host for High-Performance Lithium Metal Anodes,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 34 (2019): 30992–30998.

[246] H. Huo, Y. Chen, R. Li, et al., “Design of a Mixed Conductive Garnet/Li Interface for Dendrite-Free Solid Lithium Metal Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 13, no. 1 (2020): 127–134.

[247] D. Lee, S. Sun, J. Kwon, et al., “Copper Nitride Nanowires Printed Li With Stable Cycling for Li Metal Batteries in Carbonate Electrolytes,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 7 (2020): 1905573.

[248] Y. Zhang, Y. Zhong, S. Liang, B. Wang, X. Chen, and H. Wang, “Formation and Evolution of Lithium Metal Anode–Carbonate Electrolyte Interphases,” ACS Materials Letters 1, no. 2 (2019): 254–259.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.