Typical Applications and Flame-Retardant Strategies for Organic Phase-Change Materials

Abstract

This study begins by exploring the typical practical applications of phase-change materials (PCMs) in various industries, highlighting their importance in energy storage, temperature regulation, and thermal management. It then emphasizes the necessity of flame-retardant functionalization tailored to the specific application scenarios of PCMs, especially considering their use in safety-critical environments such as electronics, automotive, and construction. The classic characterization methods for assessing the flame-retardant properties of PCM are introduced in detail, including the limiting oxygen index, the vertical burning test, and the cone calorimeter, which are widely recognized standards in material safety testing. Additionally, newly developed methods for evaluating combustion safety are discussed, such as direct combustion tests, candle combustion experiments, and back temperature response, which offer a more comprehensive understanding of the material's fire resistance. Following this, this study provides a thorough summary and categorization of the flame-retardant strategies used in PCMs, divided into four main approaches: (1) incorporation of external flame retardants, (2) use of flame-retardant microcapsules, (3) development of flame-retardant support materials, and (4) creation of intrinsic flame-retardant PCMs. Each strategy is critically analyzed in terms of effectiveness, applicability, and potential challenges. Lastly, the conclusion provides an overview of the current state of flame-retardant PCMs, offering insights into future development directions, including the pursuit of more sustainable and efficient flame-retardant solutions, as well as prospects for their broader adoption in various industries.

Keywords

bio-based / energy storage / flame retardant / nanocomposites / phase-change materials

References

[1] J. Liu, X. Zhu, J. Dai, K. Yang, S. Wang, and X. Liu, “Integration of Sustainable Polymers With Phase Change Materials,” Progress in Materials Science 151 (2025): 101447.

[2] F. Zhao, W. Yuan, H. Chen, et al., “Advances in Organic Porous Polymeric-Supported Photothermal Phase Change Materials,” Carbon Energy 7 (2025): e719.

[3] V. J. Reddy, M. F. Ghazali, and S. Kumarasamy, “Advancements in Phase Change Materials for Energy-Efficient Building Construction: A Comprehensive Review,” Journal of Energy Storage 81 (2024): 110494.

[4] M. Chen, H. Liu, H. Zhang, and X. Wang, “Development of BaSO₄@N-Eicosane Phase-Change Microcapsules With High Corrosion Resistance for Thermal Regulation Application in Architectural Coatings,” Journal of Energy Storage 57 (2023): 106232.

[5] Y. Jung, M. Kim, T. Kim, J. Ahn, J. Lee, and S. H. Ko, “Functional Materials and Innovative Strategies for Wearable Thermal Management Applications,” Nano-Micro Letters 15, no. 2024 (2023): 160–201.

[6] Y. Li, X. Zhao, Y. Tang, X. Zuo, and H. Yang, “Mineral-Based Composite Phase Change Materials Assembled Into 3D Ordered Aerogels for Efficient Wearable Filtration and Thermal Management,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 39 (2024): 2403059.

[7] Z. Zhu, A. Bashir, X. Wu, et al., “Highly Integrated Phase Change and Radiative Cooling Fiber Membrane for Adaptive Personal Thermal Regulation,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 9 (2024): 2416111.

[8] T. Shi, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Shape Memory Flexible Composites Based on Magnetic Melamine/Polydopamine/Phosphorene Complex Foams and Polyethylene Glycol,” Composites, Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 181 (2024): 108117.

[9] Z. Huang, R. Wang, W. Jiang, et al., “Nacre-Inspired Flexible and Thermally Conductive Phase Change Composites With Parallelly Aligned Boron Nitride Nanosheets for Advanced Electronics Thermal Management,” Composites Science and Technology 255 (2024): 110736.

[10] E. Alehosseini and S. M. Jafari, “Micro/Nano-Encapsulated Phase Change Materials (PCMs) as Emerging Materials for the Food Industry,” Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019): 116–128.

[11] K. Yuan, Q. Chen, M. Qin, et al., “Micro/Nano Encapsulated Phase Change Materials: Preparation, Principle, and Emerging Advances in Medical Field,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 23 (2024): 2314487.

[12] M. Zare and K. S. Mikkonen, “Phase Change Materials for Life Science Applications,” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 12 (2023): 2213455.

[13] K. Matuszek, M. Kar, J. M. Pringle, and D. R. MacFarlane, “Phase Change Materials for Renewable Energy Storage at Intermediate Temperatures,” Chemical Reviews 123, no. 1 (2022): 491–514.

[14] M. Wu, Y. Xuan, X. Liu, Y. Jing, and T. Li, “Flexible, Recyclable, and Highly Conductive Self-Healing Polymer-Based Phase Change Films for Thermal Management,” Advanced Functional Materials (2025): 2506229.

[15] M. Liu, R. Qian, Y. Yang, X. Lu, L. Huang, and D. Zou, “Modification of Phase Change Materials for Electric-Thermal, Photo-Thermal, and Magnetic-Thermal Conversions: A Comprehensive Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 33 (2024): 2400038.

[16] S. Yang, Y. Yang, X. Xia, B. Zou, B. Wang, and Y. Zhang, “Biomimetic Stimulus Responsiveness: From Materials Design to Device Integration,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 33 (2024): 2400500.

[17] S. Kahwaji, M. B. Johnson, A. C. Kheirabadi, D. Groulx, and M. A. White, “A Comprehensive Study of Properties of Paraffin Phase Change Materials for Solar Thermal Energy Storage and Thermal Management Applications,” Energy 162 (2018): 1169–1182.

[18] S. Mondal, “Thermo-Regulating Textiles With Phase-Change Materials,” in Functional Textiles for Improved Performance, Protection and Health (2011), 163–183.

[19] L. Liu, Y. Zhang, S. Zhang, and B. Tang, “Advanced Phase Change Materials From Natural Perspectives: Structural Design and Functional Applications,” Advanced Science 10, no. 22 (2023): 2207652.

[20] L. Lu, H. Guo, I. Martin-Fabiani, et al., “Recent Advances and Applications of Flexible Phase Change Composites,” EcoMat 7, no. 4 (2025): e70004.

[21] L. Yu, Y. Jiang, B. Yang, et al., “Reverse Emulsion-Templated Nanoencapsulation of NaNO₃ With Crystalline TiO₂ Shell for High-Temperature Heat Energy Storage and Thermal Corrosion Resistance,” Journal of Energy Storage 128 (2025): 117277.

[22] X. Zhang, L. Geng, G. Liang, et al., “Experimental Study on Solid-Solid Phase Change Energy Storage Materials by a Facile Inorganic-Organic Integration Strategy,” Journal of Energy Storage 113 (2025): 115617.

[23] S. Saher, S. Johnston, R. Esther-Kelvin, J. M. Pringle, D. R. MacFarlane, and K. Matuszek, “Trimodal Thermal Energy Storage Material for Renewable Energy Applications,” Nature 636, no. 8043 (2024): 622–626.

[24] Y. Li, T. Wang, J. Zhang, J. Cheng, and Q. Lian, “Multi-Mode Triggered Bio-Based Epoxy Resin/Lauric Acid/Graphene Paper Flexible Phase Change Materials With High Enthalpy Value, Multi-Functionality, and Personal Thermal Management Ability,” Composites, Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 193 (2025): 108849.

[25] S. Yang, H. Y. Shi, J. Liu, Y. Y. Lai, Ö. Bayer, and L. W. Fan, “Supercooled Erythritol for High-Performance Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 4948.

[26] T. Shi, X. Gao, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Multi-Energy Conversion and Electromagnetic Shielding Enabled by Carbonized Polyimide/Kevlar/Graphene Oxide@ZIF-67 Bidirectional Complex Aerogel-Encapsulated Phase-Change Materials,” Nano-Micro Letters 17, no. 1 (2025): 236–263.

[27] Z. M. Png, X. Y. D. Soo, M. H. Chua, et al., “Strategies to Reduce the Flammability of Organic Phase Change Materials: A Review,” Solar Energy 231 (2022): 115–128.

[28] T. B. Freeman, K. E. O. Foster, C. J. Troxler, et al., “Advanced Materials and Additive Manufacturing for Phase Change Thermal Energy Storage and Management: A Review,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 24 (2023): 2204208.

[29] Q. Zhang, Y. Li, C. Liu, et al., “Micro/Nano Encapsulated Phase Change Material: Materials, Preparation, and Emerging Advances in the Solar Energy Field,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 12, no. 47 (2024): 32526–32547.

[30] X. Deng, C. Li, X. Sun, et al., “Flame-Retardant Wood-Based Composite Phase Change Materials Based on PDMS/Expanded Graphite Coating for Efficient Solar-to-Thermal Energy Storage,” Applied Energy 368 (2024): 123454.

[31] D. Jiao, H. Zhao, H. Sima, C. Cheng, B. Liu, and C. Zhang, “Engineering Flame Retardant Epoxy Resins With Strengthened Mechanical Property by Using Reactive Catechol Functionalized Dopo Compounds,” Chemical Engineering Journal 485 (2024): 149910.

[32] S. Lou, S. Wang, L. Zhang, J. Liu, and T. Tang, “Intrinsic Flame-Retardant Epoxy Resin Based on Phosphorus-Containing Liquid Imidazole Compound: Simultaneously Improving Fire Safety, Mechanical Property and Heat Resistance,” Chemical Engineering Journal 493 (2024): 152816.

[33] S. Araby, B. Philips, Q. Meng, J. Ma, T. Laoui, and C. H. Wang, “Recent Advances in Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Flame Retardant Polymers and Composites,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 212 (2021): 108675.

[34] L. Ma, J. Gao, Y. Wang, H. Ge, X. Lin, and Z. Zhu, “Preparation of Phosphorus/Nitrogen-Containing MXene Nanohybrids via In Situ Polymerization and Their Application in Epoxy Resins,” Progress in Organic Coatings 203 (2025): 109163.

[35] M. Liu, J. Qiao, X. Zhang, et al., “Flame Retardant Strategies and Applications of Organic Phase Change Materials: A Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 2 (2024): 2412492.

[36] G. Z. Yin, J. Hobson, Y. Duan, and D. Y. Wang, “Polyrotaxane: New Generation of Sustainable, Ultra-Flexible, Form-Stable and Smart Phase Change Materials,” Energy Storage Materials 40 (2021): 347–357.

[37] T. Yang, W. P. King, and N. Miljkovic, “Phase Change Material-Based Thermal Energy Storage,” Cell Reports Physical Science 2, no. 8 (2021): 100540.

[38] W. Li, Z. Zheng, Z. Qian, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Phase Change Material Boosting Electricity Output and Freshwater Production Through Hierarchical-Structured 3D Solar Evaporator,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 26 (2024): 2316504.

[39] H. Zhang, S. Zhou, H. Liu, Z. Qian, and X. Wang, “All-Weather Solar-Powered Desalination and Synchronous Cs⁺ Extraction for Salt-Lake Water Enabled by Crown-Ether-Decorated Phase-Change Microcapsules,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 48 (2024): 2408269.

[40] Y. Jin, W. Aftab, X. Geng, et al., “High-Efficiency Thermal-Shock Resistance Enabled by Radiative Cooling and Latent Heat Storage,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 25 (2024): 2314130.

[41] Y. Chen, Y. Meng, J. Zhang, et al., “Leakage Proof, Flame‑Retardant, and Electromagnetic Shield Wood Morphology Genetic Composite Phase Change Materials for Solar Thermal Energy Harvesting,” Nano-Micro Letters 16 (2024): 196.

[42] F. Cao, Z. Li, Y. Zhang, et al., “Silica-Based Aerogels Encapsulate Organic/Inorganic Composite Phase Change Materials for Building Thermal Management,” Journal of Energy Storage 97 (2024): 112858–112867.

[43] Y. Lin, Q. Kang, Y. Liu, et al., “Flexible, Highly Thermally Conductive and Electrically Insulating Phase Change Materials for Advanced Thermal Management of 5G Base Stations and Thermoelectric Generators,” Nano-Micro Letters 15 (2023): 31.

[44] Yi-C. Zhou, Y. Jie, B. Lu, B. Rui-Ying, Y. Ming-Bo, and Y. Wei, “Super-Flexible Phase Change Materials With a Dual-Supporting Effect for Solar Thermoelectric Conversion in the Ocean Environment,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 11 (2023): 341–351.

[45] X. Hu, B. Quan, C. Zhu, et al., “Upgrading Electricity Generation and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Efficiency via Phase-Change Feedback and Simple Origami Strategy,” Advanced Science 10, no. 14 (2023): 2206835.

[46] T. Shi, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Unidirectionally Structured Magnetic Phase-Change Composite Based on Carbonized Polyimide/Kevlar Nanofiber Complex Aerogel for Boosting Solar-Thermo-Electric Energy Conversion,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 16, no. 8 (2024): 10180–10195.

[47] Y. Zhang, K. Wu, and Q. Fu, “A Structured Phase Change Material With Controllable Thermoconductive Highways Enables Unparalleled Electricity via Solar-Thermal-Electric Conversion,” Advanced Functional Materials 32, no. 6 (2022): 2109255–2109262.

[48] S. Olson, M. F. Jansen, D. S. Abbot, I. Halevy, and C. Goldblatt, “The Effect of Ocean Salinity on Climate and Its Implications for Earth's Habitability,” Geophysical Research Letters 49, no. 10 (2022): e2021GL095748.

[49] A. K. S. Al-Sayyab, A. Mota-Babiloni, and J. Navarro-Esbrí, “Renewable and Waste Heat Applications for Heating, Cooling, and Power Generation Based on Advanced Configurations,” Energy Conversion and Management 291 (2023): 117253.

[50] R. J. Leamon, S. W. McIntosh, and D. R. Marsh, “Termination of Solar Cycles and Correlated Tropospheric Variability,” Earth and Space Science 8, no. 4 (2021): e2020EA001223.

[51] A. R. Muchtar, B. Srinivasan, S. L. Tonquesse, et al., “Physical Insights on the Lattice Softening Driven Mid-Temperature Range Thermoelectrics of Ti/Zr-Inserted SnTe–An Outlook Beyond the Horizons of Conventional Phonon Scattering and Excavation of Heikes' Equation for Estimating Carrier Properties,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 28 (2021): 2101122.

[52] Z. Tang, P. Cheng, P. Liu, Y. Gao, X. Chen, and G. Wang, “Tightened 1D/3D Carbon Heterostructure Infiltrating Phase Change Materials for Solar–Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting: Faster and Better,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 6 (2023): e281.

[53] L. L. Baranowski, G. J. Snyder, and E. S. Toberer, “Concentrated Solar Thermoelectric Generators,” Energy & Environmental Science 5, no. 10 (2012): 9055.

[54] D. Kraemer, B. Poudel, H. P. Feng, et al., “High-Performance Flat-Panel Solar Thermoelectric Generators With High Thermal Concentration,” Nature Materials 10 (2011): 532–538.

[55] M. H. Jeong, E. J. Bae, B. Park, J. Ha, M. Han, and Y. H. Kang, “High-Performance and Flexible Thermoelectric Generator Based on a Robust Carbon Nanotube/BiSbTe Foam,” Carbon Energy 7, no. 1 (2024): e650.

[56] H. Wang, Y. Peng, H. Peng, and J. Zhang, “Fluidic Phase–Change Materials With Continuous Latent Heat From Theoretically Tunable Ternary Metals for Efficient Thermal Management,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of United States of America 119, no. 31 (2022): e2200223119.

[57] F. Xue, X. Qi, T. Huang, Cy Tang, N. Zhang, and Y. Wang, “Preparation and Application of Three-Dimensional Filler Network Towards Organic Phase Change Materials With High Performance and Multi-Functions,” Chemical Engineering Journal 419 (2021): 129620.

[58] R. Cao, D. Sun, L. Wang, et al., “Enhancing Solar–Thermal–Electric Energy Conversion Based on m-PEGMA/GO Synergistic Phase Change Aerogels,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 26 (2020): 13207–13217.

[59] H. Y. Zhao, X. Wang, J. Wu, et al., “An Intelligent, Solar-Responsive, and Thermally Conductive Phase-Change System Toward Solar-Thermal-Electrical Conversion Featuring Daytime Blooming for Solar Energy Harvesting and Nighttime Closing for Thermal Preservation,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 45 (2024): 2406236.

[60] L. Li, L. Kong, T. Luo, et al., “Flexible Photothermal Phase Change Material With High Photothermal Properties Achieved by Promoted Dispersion of Hydrophobically Modified Eumelanin and Its Photovoltaic Applications,” Small 21, no. 22 (2025): 2500951.

[61] X. Zeng, S. Chen, Y. Liao, et al., “High Latent Heat and Recyclable Phase-Change Materials for Photothermoelectric Conversion,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 17, no. 18 (2025): 27155–27166.

[62] Y. Tang, X. Zhao, Y. Li, et al., “Nanoclay Hybridized Graphene Aerogels Encapsulating Phase Change Material for Efficient Solar-Driven Desalination and Electricity Generation,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 48 (2024): 2408693.

[63] B. Ai, Z. Liu, X. Hu, et al., “Sandwich-Structured HDPE-Based Medium-Temperature Phase Change Composites With MXene Interlayers for Photo-Thermal-Electrical Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 512 (2025): 162367.

[64] Z. Huang, Y. Liu, J. Yang, Dx Sun, Xd Qi, and Y. Wang, “Pine Needle-Like Hierarchical Copper Foam-Based High-Performance Phase Change Composites for All-Weather Solar-Thermal-Electric Conversion,” Chemical Engineering Journal 514 (2025): 163268.

[65] X. L. Shi, J. Zou, and Z. G. Chen, “Advanced Thermoelectric Design: From Materials and Structures to Devices,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 15 (2020): 7399–7515.

[66] D. Kraemer, J. Sui, K. McEnaney, et al., “High Thermoelectric Conversion Efficiency of MgAgSb-Based Material With Hot-Pressed Contacts,” Energy & Environmental Science 8, no. 4 (2015): 1299–1308.

[67] D. Liu, C. Lei, K. Wu, and Q. Fu, “A Multidirectionally Thermoconductive Phase Change Material Enables High and Durable Electricity via Real-Environment Solar-Thermal-Electric Conversion,” ACS Nano 14, no. 11 (2020): 15738–15747.

[68] J. Yang, L. S. Tang, R. Y. Bao, et al., “An Ice-Templated Assembly Strategy to Construct Graphene Oxide/Boron Nitride Hybrid Porous Scaffolds in Phase Change Materials With Enhanced Thermal Conductivity and Shape Stability for Light–Thermal–Electric Energy Conversion,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 4 (2016): 18841–18851.

[69] J. Yang, L. S. Tang, R. Y. Bao, et al., “Largely Enhanced Thermal Conductivity of Poly (Ethylene Glycol)/Boron Nitride Composite Phase Change Materials for Solar-Thermal-Electric Energy Conversion and Storage With Very Low Content of Graphene Nanoplatelets,” Chemical Engineering Journal 315 (2017): 481–490.

[70] X. Chen, J. Lin, Y. Feng, et al., “Carbon-Metal Network Boosting Photon/Phonon Transport in Photothermal Phase Change Materials,” Carbon 238 (2025): 120192.

[71] K. Chen, Y. Li, Y. Feng, et al., “In Situ Vertical Alignment of MoS₂ on Co/C Dodecahedron Boosting Phase Change Materials for Solar-Thermoelectric Generation,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 107 (2025): 548–557.

[72] Y. Li, Y. Feng, M. Qin, et al., “Co-Anchored Hollow Carbonized Kapok Fiber Encapsulated Phase Change Materials for Upgrading Photothermal Utilization,” Small 21, no. 21 (2025): 2500479.

[73] J. Weng, X. Yang, D. Ouyang, M. Chen, G. Zhang, and J. Wang, “Comparative Study on the Transversal/Lengthwise Thermal Failure Propagation and Heating Position Effect of Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Applied Energy 255 (2019): 113761.

[74] X. Feng, M. Ouyang, X. Liu, L. Lu, Y. Xia, and X. He, “Thermal Runaway Mechanism of Lithium Ion Battery for Electric Vehicles: A Review,” Energy Storage Materials 10 (2018): 246–267.

[75] R. Kizilel, R. Sabbah, J. R. Selman, and S. Al-Hallaj, “An Alternative Cooling System to Enhance the Safety of Li-Ion Battery Packs,” Journal of Power Sources 194, no. 2 (2009): 1105–1112.

[76] S. Wilke, B. Schweitzer, S. Khateeb, and S. Al-Hallaj, “Preventing Thermal Runaway Propagation in Lithium Ion Battery Packs Using a Phase Change Composite Material: An Experimental Study,” Journal of Power Sources 340 (2017): 51–59.

[77] B. Coleman, J. Ostanek, and J. Heinzel, “Reducing Cell-to-Cell Spacing for Large-Format Lithium Ion Battery Modules With Aluminum or PCM Heat Sinks Under Failure Conditions,” Applied Energy 180 (2016): 14–26.

[78] N. Joshy, M. Hajiyan, A. R. M. Siddique, S. Tasnim, H. Simha, and S. Mahmud, “Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Vibration on Phase Change Material (PCM) Based Battery Thermal Management System,” Journal of Power Sources 450 (2020): 227717.

[79] D. Hu, L. Han, W. Zhou, et al., “Flexible Phase Change Composite Based on Loading Paraffin Into Cross-Linked CNT/SBS Network for Thermal Management and Thermal Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 437 (2022): 135056.

[80] J. Weng, Y. He, D. Ouyang, et al., “Honeycomb-Inspired Design of a Thermal Management Module and Its Mitigation Effect on Thermal Runaway Propagation,” Applied Thermal Engineering 195 (2021): 117147.

[81] F. Zhang, A. Lin, P. Wang, and P. Liu, “Optimization Design of a Parallel Air-Cooled Battery Thermal Management System With Spoilers,” Applied Thermal Engineering 182 (2021): 116062.

[82] J. Weng, C. Xiao, D. Ouyang, et al., “Mitigation Effects on Thermal Runaway Propagation of Structure-Enhanced Phase Change Material Modules With Flame Retardant Additives,” Energy 239 (2022): 122087.

[83] S. Wu, T. Li, Z. Tong, et al., “High-Performance Thermally Conductive Phase Change Composites by Large-Size Oriented Graphite Sheets for Scalable Thermal Energy Harvesting,” Advanced Materials 31, no. 49 (2019): 1905099.

[84] P. Jaumaux, J. Wu, D. Shanmukaraj, et al., “Non-Flammable Liquid and Quasi-Solid Electrolytes Toward Highly-Safe Alkali Metal-Based Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 31, no. 10 (2020): 2008644.

[85] L. Li, C. Xu, R. Chang, et al., “Thermal-Responsive, Super-Strong, Ultrathin Firewalls for Quenching Thermal Runaway in High-Energy Battery Modules,” Energy Storage Materials 40 (2021): 329–336.

[86] Y. Li, T. Wang, X. Li, G. Zhang, K. Chen, and W. Yang, “Experimental Investigation on Thermal Management System With Flame Retardant Flexible Phase Change Material for Retired Battery Module,” Applied Energy 327 (2022): 120109.

[87] M. Wu, T. Li, P. Wang, S. Wu, R. Wang, and J. Lin, “Dual-Encapsulated Highly Conductive and Liquid-Free Phase Change Composites Enabled by Polyurethane/Graphite Nanoplatelets Hybrid Networks for Efficient Energy Storage and Thermal Management,” Small 18, no. 9 (2022): 2105647.

[88] G. Cheng, Z. Wang, X. Wang, and Y. He, “All-Climate Thermal Management Structure for Batteries Based on Expanded Graphite/Polymer Composite Phase Change Material With a High Thermal and Electrical Conductivity,” Applied Energy 322 (2022): 119509.

[89] J. Zhang, X. Li, G. Zhang, et al., “Experimental Investigation of the Flame Retardant and Form-Stable Composite Phase Change Materials for a Power Battery Thermal Management System,” Journal of Power Sources 480 (2020): 229116.

[90] H. Han, F. Xiong, M. Qin, et al., “Intrinsic Flame-Retardant Phase Change Materials for Battery Thermal Management During Rapid Cycling and Thermal Runaway,” Energy Storage Materials 77 (2025): 104175.

[91] J. Yang, L. Chen, J. Ou, W. Li, and W. Wu, “Room-Temperature Flexible Composite Phase Change Materials for Enhanced Battery Thermal Management,” Applied Thermal Engineering 265 (2025): 125667.

[92] J. Guo, H. Ding, J. Xie, et al., “Bio-Based, Flexible, and Electrically Insulating Phase Change Materials for Advanced Battery Thermal Management,” Journal of Energy Storage 111 (2025): 115405.

[93] C. Zhang, Y. Mao, K. Li, et al., “High Power and Energy Density Graphene Phase Change Composite Materials for Efficient Thermal Management of Li-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 75 (2025): 104003.

[94] J. Zhao, Y. Chen, and M. Chen, “Battery Thermal Management With a Modified Metal Alloy/Expanded Graphite/Paraffin Composite Phase Change Material,” Journal of Energy Storage 113 (2025): 115652.

[95] M. Kaempgen, C. K. Chan, J. Ma, Y. Cui, and G. Gruner, “Printable Thin Film Supercapacitors Using Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes,” Nano Letters 9, no. 5 (2009): 1872–1876.

[96] S. Pan, J. Ren, X. Fang, and H. Peng, “Integration: An Effective Strategy to Develop Multifunctional Energy Storage Devices,” Advanced Energy Materials 6, no. 4 (2016): 1501867.

[97] X. Zhang, Y. Guo, Y. Liu, et al., “Ultrathick and Highly Thermally Conductive Graphene Films by Self-Fusion,” Carbon 167 (2020): 249–255.

[98] Y. Li, J. Chen, Y. Xing, and J. Song, “Thermal Management of Micro-Scale Inorganic Light-Emitting Diodes on an Orthotropic Substrate for Biointegrated Applications,” Scientific Reports 7, no. 1 (2017): 6638.

[99] Y. Shi, C. Wang, Y. Yin, Y. Li, Y. Xing, and J. Song, “Functional Soft Composites as Thermal Protecting Substrates for Wearable Electronics,” Advanced Functional Materials 29, no. 45 (2019): 1905470.

[100] B. Wang, G. Li, L. Xu, J. Liao, and X. Zhang, “Nanoporous Boron Nitride Aerogel Film and Its Smart Composite With Phase Change Materials,” ACS Nano 14, no. 12 (2020): 16590–16599.

[101] X. Li, M. Sheng, S. Gong, et al., “Flexible and Multifunctional Phase Change Composites Featuring High-Efficiency Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Thermal Management for Use in Electronic Devices,” Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022): 132928.

[102] X. Hu, X. Huang, B. Quan, et al., “Tree-Inspired and Scalable High Thermal Conductivity Ethylene–Vinyl Acetate Copolymer/Expanded Graphite/Paraffin Wax Phase Change Composites for Efficient Thermal Management,” Chemical Engineering Journal 471 (2023): 144720.

[103] H. Li, C. Hu, Y. Jiang, et al., “Flexible and Leakage-Proof Sodium Alginate-Based Phase Change Composite Film for Thermal-Comfortable Application of Electronic Devices,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 29 (2023): 10620–10630.

[104] X. Zhu, X. Li, J. Shen, et al., “Stable Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials With Ultrahigh Payload for Efficient Cooling of Mobile Electronic Devices,” Energy Conversion and Management 223 (2020): 113478.

[105] W. Lee and J. Kim, “Cellulose Nanofiber Grafting and Aluminum Nitride Deposition on the Surface of Expanded Graphite to Improve the Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Phase Change Material Composites,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 230 (2022): 109526.

[106] A. G. Anter, A. A. Sultan, A. A. Hegazi, and M. A. El Bouz, “Thermal Performance and Energy Saving Using Phase Change Materials (PCM) Integrated in Building Walls,” Journal of Energy Storage 67 (2023): 107568.

[107] M. Mahdaoui, S. Hamdaoui, A. Ait Msaad, et al., “Building Bricks With Phase Change Material (PCM): Thermal Performances,” Construction and Building Materials 269 (2021): 121315.

[108] R. Kalbasi, B. Samali, and M. Afrand, “Taking Benefits of Using PCMs in Buildings to Meet Energy Efficiency Criteria in Net Zero by 2050,” Chemosphere 311, no. 2 (2023): 137100.

[109] Z. X. Li, A. A. A. A. Al-Rashed, M. Rostamzadeh, R. Kalbasi, A. Shahsavar, and M. Afrand, “Heat Transfer Reduction in Buildings by Embedding Phase Change Material in Multi-Layer Walls: Effects of Repositioning, Thermophysical Properties and Thickness of PCM,” Energy Conversion and Management 195 (2019): 43–56.

[110] J. Lei, J. Yang, and E. H. Yang, “Energy Performance of Building Envelopes Integrated With Phase Change Materials for Cooling Load Reduction in Tropical Singapore,” Applied Energy 162 (2016): 207–217.

[111] Z. Zhang, N. Zhang, Y. Yuan, P. E. Phelan, and S. Attia, “Thermal Performance Analysis of an Existing Building Heating Based on a Novel Active Phase Change Heater,” Energy and Buildings 278 (2023): 112646.

[112] K. Faraj, M. Khaled, J. Faraj, F. Hachem, and C. Castelain, “Phase Change Material Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Cooling Applications in Buildings: A Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 119 (2020): 109579.

[113] G. Zhang, N. Xiao, B. Wang, and A. G. Razaqpur, “Thermal Performance of a Novel Building Wall Incorporating a Dynamic Phase Change Material Layer for Efficient Utilization of Passive Solar Energy,” Construction and Building Materials 317 (2022): 126017.

[114] E. Rodriguez-Ubinas, L. Ruiz-Valero, S. Vega, and J. Neila, “Applications of Phase Change Material in Highly Energy-Efficient Houses,” Energy and Buildings 50 (2012): 49–62.

[115] P. Schossig, H. Henning, S. Gschwander, and T. Haussmann, “Micro-Encapsulated Phase-Change Materials Integrated Into Construction Materials,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 89 (2005): 297–306.

[116] D. Li, Y. Zheng, C. Liu, and G. Wu, “Numerical Analysis on Thermal Performance of Roof Contained PCM of a Single Residential Building,” Energy Conversion and Management 100 (2015): 147–156.

[117] J. Yu, Q. Yang, H. Ye, et al., “Thermal Performance Evaluation and Optimal Design of Building Roof With Outer-Layer Shape-Stabilized PCM,” Renewable Energy 145 (2020): 2538–2549.

[118] S. S. Chandel and T. Agarwal, “Review of Current State of Research on Energy Storage, Toxicity, Health Hazards and Commercialization of Phase Changing Materials,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017): 581–596.

[119] J. Giro-Paloma, M. Martínez, L. F. Cabeza, and A. I. Fernández, “Types, Methods, Techniques, and Applications for Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials (MPCM): A Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016): 1059–1075.

[120] H. Zhang, F. Xing, H. Z. Cui, et al., “A Novel Phase-Change Cement Composite for Thermal Energy Storage: Fabrication, Thermal and Mechanical Properties,” Applied Energy 170 (2016): 130–139.

[121] L. Pan, Q. Tao, S. Zhang, et al., “Preparation, Characterization and Thermal Properties of Micro-Encapsulated Phase Change Materials,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 98 (2012): 66–70.

[122] Z. Sun, T. Shi, Y. Wang, J. Li, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Hierarchical Microencapsulation of Phase Change Material With Carbon-Nanotubes/Polydopamine/Silica Shell for Synergistic Enhancement of Solar Photothermal Conversion and Storage,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 236 (2022): 111539.

[123] T. Makuta, K. Kadoya, H. Izumi, and M. Miyatake, “Synthesis of Cyanoacrylate-Covered Xylitol Microcapsules for Thermal Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 273 (2015): 192–196.

[124] C. Y. Zhao and G. H. Zhang, “Review on Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials (MEPCMs): Fabrication, Characterization and Applications,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15, no. 8 (2011): 3813–3832.

[125] X. Yu, Y. Li, X. Yin, et al., “Corncoblike, Superhydrophobic, and Phase-Changeable Nanofibers for Intelligent Thermoregulating and Water-Repellent Fabrics,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 42 (2019): 39324–39333.

[126] C. Wang, J. Wang, L. Zhang, and S. Fu, “Thermoregulatory Elasticity Braided Fibers Designed With Core–Sheath Structure for Wearable Personal Thermal Management,” Journal of Materials Chemistry C 12, no. 7398 (2024): 7398–7406.

[127] Y. He, Q. Liu, M. Tian, et al., “Highly Conductive and Elastic Multi-Responsive Phase Change Smart Fiber and Textile,” Composites Communications 44 (2023): 101772.

[128] Z. Niu, S. Qi, S. S. A. Shuaib, and W. Yuan, “Flexible, Stimuli-Responsive and Self-Cleaning Phase Change Fiber for Thermal Energy Storage and Smart Textiles,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 228 (2022): 109431.

[129] J. Wu, M. Wang, L. Dong, et al., “A Trimode Thermoregulatory Flexible Fibrous Membrane Designed With Hierarchical Core-Sheath Fiber Structure for Wearable Personal Thermal Management,” ACS Nano 16, no. 8 (2022): 12801–12812.

[130] Q. Zhang, T. Xue, J. Tian, Y. Yang, W. Fan, and T. Liu, “Polyimide/Boron Nitride Composite Aerogel Fiber-Based Phase-Changeable Textile for Intelligent Personal Thermoregulation,” Composites Science and Technology 226 (2022): 109541.

[131] Z. Guo, F. Lin, J. Qiao, et al., “A Modified Kapok Fiber Based Phase Change Composite for Highly-Efficient Solar-Thermal Conversion,” Nano Energy 108 (2023): 108205.

[132] G. Li, G. Hong, D. Dong, W. Song, and X. Zhang, “Multiresponsive Graphene-Aerogel-Directed Phase-Change Smart Fibers,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 30 (2018): 1801754.

[133] M. Kong, X. Guo, S. Zhang, Y. Zhang, and B. Tang, “Structural Colored Textiles With High Color Visibility and Stability for Intelligent Thermoregulating Performance,” Chemical Engineering Journal 473 (2023): 145332.

[134] C. Liang, W. Zhang, C. Liu, et al., “Multifunctional Phase Change Textiles With Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Multiple Thermal Response Characteristics,” Chemical Engineering Journal 471 (2023): 144500.

[135] Y. Su, W. Zhu, M. Tian, Y. Wang, X. Zhang, and J. Li, “Intelligent Bidirectional Thermal Regulation of Phase Change Material Incorporated in Thermal Protective Clothing,” Applied Thermal Engineering 174 (2020): 115340.

[136] T. Ma, L. Li, Q. Wang, and C. Guo, “High-Performance Flame Retarded Paraffin/Epoxy Resin Form-Stable Phase Change Material,” Journal of Materials Science 54, no. 1 (2018): 875–885.

[137] R. N. Walters, N. Safronava, and R. E. Lyon, “A Microscale Combustion Calorimeter Study of Gas Phase Combustion of Polymers,” Combustion and Flame 162, no. 3 (2015): 855–863.

[138] Y. H. Huang, Y. X. Cheng, R. Zhao, and W. L. Cheng, “A High Heat Storage Capacity Form-Stable Composite Phase Change Material With Enhanced Flame Retardancy,” Applied Energy 262 (2020): 114536.

[139] Y. Zhao, Q. Zeng, X. Lai, et al., “Multifunctional Cellulose-Based Aerogel for Intelligent Fire Fighting,” Carbohydrate Polymers 316 (2023): 121060.

[140] R. Chen, X. Huang, R. Zheng, D. Xie, Y. Mei, and R. Zou, “Flame-Retardancy and Thermal Properties of a Novel Phosphorus-Modified PCM for Thermal Energy Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 380 (2020): 122500.

[141] J. Wang, H. Yue, Z. Du, X. Cheng, H. Wang, and X. Du, “Flame-Retardant and Form-Stable Delignified Wood-Based Phase Change Composites With Superior Energy Storage Density and Reversible Thermochromic Properties for Visual Thermoregulation,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 9 (2023): 3932–3943.

[142] D. Li, Y. Tang, X. Zuo, X. Zhao, X. Zhang, and H. Yang, “Preparation of Hierarchical Porous Microspheres Composite Phase Change Material for Thermal Energy Storage Concrete in Buildings,” Applied Clay Science 232 (2023): 106771.

[143] J. Li, R. Chen, Y. Luo, et al., “SWCNT-Encapsulated Phosphorus-Grafted Stearyl Alcohol as a Flame-Retardant Phase-Change Material With Superior Thermal Properties,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 5, no. 2 (2022): 1869–1882.

[144] Z. Zhang, Z. Zhang, T. Chang, J. Wang, X. Wang, and G. Zhou, “Phase Change Material Microcapsules With Melamine Resin Shell via Cellulose Nanocrystal Stabilized Pickering Emulsion In-Situ Polymerization,” Chemical Engineering Journal 428 (2022): 131164.

[145] D. Xu, Q. Huang, L. Yang, et al., “Experimental Design of Composite Films With Thermal Management and Electromagnetic Shielding Properties Based on Polyethylene Glycol and MXene,” Carbon 202 (2023): 1–12.

[146] G. Z. Yin, X. M. Yang, J. Hobson, A. M. López, and D. Y. Wang, “Bio-Based Poly (Glycerol-Itaconic Acid)/PEG/APP as Form Stable and Flame-Retardant Phase Change Materials,” Composites Communications 30 (2022): 101057.

[147] Z. Xu, W. Chen, T. Wu, C. Wang, and Z. Liang, “Thermal Management System Study of Flame Retardant Solid–Solid Phase Change Material Battery,” Surfaces and Interfaces 36 (2023): 102558.

[148] Y. Cai, Y. Hu, L. Song, H. Lu, Z. Chen, and W. Fan, “Preparation and Characterizations of HDPE–EVA Alloy/OMT Nanocomposites/Paraffin Compounds as a Shape Stabilized Phase Change Thermal Energy Storage Material,” Thermochimica Acta 451 (2006): 44–51.

[149] P. Zhang, Y. Hu, L. Song, H. Lu, J. Wang, and Q. Liu, “Synergistic Effect of Iron and Intumescent Flame Retardant on Shape-Stabilized Phase Change Material,” Thermochimica Acta 487 (2009): 74–79.

[150] Y. Jiang, P. Yan, Y. Wang, C. Zhou, and J. Lei, “Form-Stable Phase Change Materials With Enhanced Thermal Stability and Fire Resistance via the Incorporation of Phosphorus and Silicon,” Materials & Design 160 (2018): 763–771.

[151] L. Li, G. Wang, and C. Guo, “Influence of Intumescent Flame Retardant on Thermal and Flame Retardancy of Eutectic Mixed Paraffin/Polypropylene Form-Stable Phase Change Materials,” Applied Energy 162 (2016): 428–434.

[152] M. Kang, Y. Liu, W. Lin, C. Liang, and J. Cheng, “The Thermal Behavior and Flame Retardant Performance of Phase Change Material Microcapsules With Halloysite Nanotube,” Journal of Energy Storage 60 (2023): 106632.

[153] P. S. Jijoe, S. R. Yashas, and H. P. Shivaraju, “Fundamentals, Synthesis, Characterization and Environmental Applications of Layered Double Hydroxides: A Review,” Environmental Chemistry Letters 19, no. 3 (2021): 2643–2661.

[154] Z. Zhang, W. Du, Y. Liu, et al., “Thermal Management Ability and Flame Retardancy of Silicone Rubber Foam Filled With Flame Retardant Phase Change Capsules,” Applied Clay Science 240 (2023): 106977.

[155] Z. Zhang, Y. Liu, W. Du, et al., “Construction of Layered Double Hydroxide-Modified Silica Integrated Multilayer Shell Phase Change Capsule With Flame Retardancy and Highly Efficient Thermoregulation Performance,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 632 (2023): 311–325.

[156] S. D. Jiang, G. Tang, J. Chen, Z. Q. Huang, and Y. Hu, “Biobased Polyelectrolyte Multilayer-Coated Hollow Mesoporous Silica as a Green Flame Retardant for Epoxy Resin,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 342 (2018): 689–697.

[157] Z. T. Hu, V. H. Reinack, J. An, et al., “Ecofriendly Microencapsulated Phase-Change Materials With Hybrid Core Materials for Thermal Energy Storage and Flame Retardancy,” Langmuir 37, no. 21 (2021): 6380–6387.

[158] X. Du, Y. Fang, X. Cheng, Z. Du, M. Zhou, and H. Wang, “Fabrication and Characterization of Flame-Retardant Nanoencapsulated n‑Octadecane With Melamine−Formaldehyde Shell for Thermal Energy Storage,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 6, no. 11 (2018): 15541–15549.

[159] H. Liao, W. Duan, Y. Liu, Q. Wang, and H. Wen, “Flame Retardant and Leaking Preventable Phase Change Materials for Thermal Energy Storage and Thermal Regulation,” Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021): 102248.

[160] P. A. Advincula, A. C. de Leon, B. J. Rodier, J. Kwon, R. C. Advincula, and E. B. Pentzer, “Accommodating Volume Change and Imparting Thermal Conductivity by Encapsulation of Phase Change Materials in Carbon Nanoparticles,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 6 (2018): 2461–2467.

[161] M. Kang, Y. Liu, C. Liang, et al., “Phase Change Material Microcapsules With DOPO/Cu Modified Halloysite Nanotubes for Thermal Controlling of Buildings: Thermophysical Properties, Flame Retardant Performance and Thermal Comfort Levels,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 207 (2023): 124045.

[162] X. Du, S. Wang, Z. Du, X. Cheng, and H. Wang, “Preparation and Characterization of Flame-Retardant Nanoencapsulated Phase Change Materials With Poly(Methylmethacrylate) Shells for Thermal Energy Storage,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 36 (2018): 17519–17529.

[163] X. Zhao, Y. Tang, W. Xie, D. Li, X. Zuo, and H. Yang, “3D Hierarchical Porous Expanded Perlite-Based Composite Phase-Change Material With Superior Latent Heat Storage Capability for Thermal Management,” Construction and Building Materials 362 (2023): 129768.

[164] S. Niu, M. Kang, Y. Liu, et al., “The Preparation and Characterization of Phase Change Material Microcapsules With Multifunctional Carbon Nanotubes for Controlling Temperature,” Energy 268 (2023): 126652.

[165] Q. Xu, X. Liu, Q. Luo, et al., “Bioinspired Spectrally Selective Phase-Change Composites for Enhanced Solar Thermal Energy Storage,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 1 (2024): 2412066.

[166] T. Luo, L. Kong, J. Lu, et al., “Neuron-Inspired Flexible Phase Change Materials for Ambient Energy Harvesting and Respiration Monitoring,” Advanced Materials 36, no. 50 (2024): 2411820.

[167] J. X. Wang, Y. Mao, and N. Miljkovic, “Nano-Enhanced Graphite/Phase Change Material/Graphene Composite for Sustainable and Efficient Passive Thermal Management,” Advanced Science 11, no. 38 (2024): 2402190.

[168] X. Hao, D. Li, X. Peng, W. Lan, and C. Liu, “In Situ Construction of Biomass Derived 3D Carbon Framework for Efficient Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Joule Heating Performance,” Chemical Engineering Journal 479 (2024): 147681.

[169] C. Qiu, H. Jiang, P. Liu, et al., “An Ultrastrong Wood-Based Phase Change Material for Efficient Photothermal Conversion and Thermal Energy Conservation,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 279 (2024): 111460.

[170] W. Fan, X. Zhang, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhang, and T. Liu, “Lightweight, Strong, and Super-Thermal Insulating Polyimide Composite Aerogels Under High Temperature,” Composites Science and Technology 173 (2019): 47–52.

[171] L. Dou, X. Zhang, X. Cheng, et al., “Hierarchical Cellular Structured Ceramic Nanofibrous Aerogels With Temperature-Invariant Superelasticity for Thermal Insulation,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 32 (2019): 29056–29064.

[172] J. Niu, S. Deng, X. Gao, H. Niu, Y. Fang, and Z. Zhang, “Experimental Study on Low Thermal Conductive and Flame Retardant Phase Change Composite Material for Mitigating Battery Thermal Runaway Propagation,” Journal of Energy Storage 47 (2022): 103557.

[173] Y. Wang, F. Wang, L. Zhao, et al., “Shape-Stable and Fire-Resistant Hybrid Phase Change Materials With Enhanced Thermoconductivity for Battery Cooling,” Chemical Engineering Journal 431 (2022): 133983.

[174] X. Zhu, J. Liu, W. Zhao, W. Yu, and X. Liu, “Design of Phase Change Composite With Hierarchical Energy-Transfer Pathway via Laser-Induced Graphene for Efficient Energy Storage, Conversion, and Utilization,” Chemical Engineering Journal 460 (2023): 141882.

[175] D. Huang, Z. Wang, X. Sheng, and Y. Chen, “Bio-Based MXene Hybrid Aerogel/Paraffin Composite Phase Change Materials With Superior Photo and Electrical Responses Toward Solar Thermal Energy Storage,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 251 (2023): 112124.

[176] M. Zhu, L. Liu, and Z. Wang, “Mesoporous Silica via Self-Assembly of Nano Zinc Amino-Tris-(Methylenephosphonate) Exhibiting Reduced Fire Hazards and Improved Impact Toughness in Epoxy Resin,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 392 (2020): 122343.

[177] A. H. Alkhazaleh, W. Almanaseer, M. Ismail, S. Almashaqbeh, and M. M. Farid, “Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Cement Based-Composite Phase Change Material of Butyl Stearate/Isopropyl Palmitate/Expanded Graphite for Low Temperature Solar Thermal Applications,” Journal of Energy Storage 50 (2022): 104547.

[178] Y. Wang, L. Zhao, W. Zhan, Y. Chen, and M. Chen, “Flame Retardant Composite Phase Change Materials With MXene for Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Management Systems,” Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024): 111293.

[179] Y. Luo, Y. Xie, H. Jiang, et al., “Flame-Retardant and Form-Stable Phase Change Composites Based on MXene With High Thermostability and Thermal Conductivity for Thermal Energy Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 420 (2021): 130466.

[180] C. Liang, H. Qiu, P. Song, X. Shi, J. Kong, and J. Gu, “Ultra-Light MXene Aerogel/Wood-Derived Porous Carbon Composites With Wall-Like “Mortar/Brick” Structures for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding,” Science Bulletin 65, no. 8 (2020): 616–622.

[181] G. Fang, H. Li, Z. Chen, and X. Liu, “Preparation and Characterization of Flame Retardant N-Hexadecane/Silicon Dioxide Composites as Thermal Energy Storage Materials,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 181, no. 1 (2010): 1004–1009.

[182] Z. Zhou, H. Xia, J. Hu, and L. Wang, “Enhanced Thermal Energy Storage of Polyethylene Glycol Composite With High Thermal Conductive Reaction-Bonded BN Aerogel,” Composites Communications 49 (2024): 101965.

[183] D. Pan, J. Dong, G. Yang, et al., “Ice Template Method Assists in Obtaining Carbonized Cellulose/Boron Nitride Aerogel With 3D Spatial Network Structure to Enhance the Thermal Conductivity and Flame Retardancy of Epoxy‑Based Composites,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5 (2022): 58–70.

[184] Y. Cao, M. Weng, M. H. H. Mahmoud, et al., “Flame‑Retardant and Leakage‑Proof Phase Change Composites Based on MXene/Polyimide Aerogels Toward Solar Thermal Energy Harvesting,” Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials 5 (2022): 1253–1267.

[185] H. Liao, W. Chen, Y. Liu, and Q. Wang, “A Phase Change Material Encapsulated in a Mechanically Strong Graphene Aerogel With High Thermal Conductivity and Excellent Shape Stability,” Composites Science and Technology 189 (2020): 108010.

[186] S. Gao, J. Ding, W. Wang, and J. Lu, “MXene Based Flexible Composite Phase Change Material With Shape Memory, Self-Healing and Flame Retardant for Thermal Management,” Composites Science and Technology 234 (2023): 109945.

[187] L. Xu, X. Liu, Z. An, and R. Yang, “EG-Based Coatings for Flame Retardance of Shape Stabilized Phase Change Materials,” Polymer Degradation and Stability 161 (2019): 114–120.

[188] Y. Luo, D. Zhou, W. Yang, et al., “Phosphorus-Nitrogen Based Flame Retardant Polyurethane Composite Phase Change Materials for Battery Thermal Safety System,” Applied Thermal Engineering 258 (2025): 124763.

[189] P. Qi, F. Chen, Y. Li, et al., “A Review of Durable Flame-Retardant Fabrics by Finishing: Fabrication Strategies and Challenges,” Advanced Fiber Materials 5, no. 3 (2023): 731–763.

[190] B. Sang, Z. Li, X. Li, L. Yu, and Z. Zhang, “Graphene-Based Flame Retardants: A Review,” Journal of Materials Science 51, no. 18 (2016): 8271–8295.

[191] W. Chai, X. Su, Y. Xia, et al., “Construction of a Novel Halogen-Free and Phosphorus-Free and Synergistic Flame Retardant System With Low Addition in Simultaneously Improving the Flame Retardancy, Water Resistance and Mechanical Properties for Silicone Rubber,” Applied Clay Science 238 (2023): 106926.

[192] Q. X. Yu, R. X. Bei, J. H. Liu, et al., “Bioinspired Polyimide Film With Fire Retardant and Gas Barrier Properties by Gravity-Induced Deposition of Montmorillonite,” Aggregate 4, no. 6 (2023): e392.

[193] J. Zhu, R. Xiong, F. Zhao, et al., “Lightweight, High-Strength, and Anisotropic Structure Composite Aerogel Based on Hydroxyapatite Nanocrystal and Chitosan With Thermal Insulation and Flame Retardant Properties,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 8, no. 1 (2019): 71–83.

[194] R. Shen, L. Liu, Y. Cao, L. Zhang, X. Sheng, and Y. Chen, “Biomass Modified Boron Nitride/Polyimide Hybrid Aerogel Supported Phase Change Composites With Superior Energy Storage Capacity and Improved Flame Retardancy for Solar-Thermal Energy Storage,” Solar Energy 242 (2022): 287–297.

[195] Q. Zhang, L. Ma, T. Xue, J. Tian, W. Fan, and T. Liu, “Flame-Retardant and Thermal-Protective Polyimide-Hydroxyapatite Aerogel Fiber-Based Composite Textile for Firefighting Clothing,” Composites, Part B: Engineering 248 (2023): 110377.

[196] L. Yin, D. Xie, K. Gong, C. Shi, X. Qian, and K. Zhou, “Phase Change Materials Encapsulated in Coral-Inspired Organic–Inorganic Aerogels for Flame-Retardant and Thermal Energy Storage,” ACS Applied Nano Materials 6, no. 10 (2023): 8752–8762.

[197] R. Tian, X. Jia, C. Huang, et al., “Flexible, Flame-Resistant, and Anisotropic Thermally Conductive Aerogel Films With Ionic Liquid Crystal-Armored Boron Nitride,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 22 (2023): 27223–27233.

[198] Q. Huang, X. Li, G. Zhang, J. Weng, Y. Wang, and J. Deng, “Innovative Thermal Management and Thermal Runaway Suppression for Battery Module With Flame Retardant Flexible Composite Phase Change Material,” Journal of Cleaner Production 330 (2022): 129718.

[199] X. Ge, X. Li, Y. Jin, G. Zhang, J. Deng, and J. Ge, “Experimental Investigation on Thermal Management System of Composite Phase Change Material Coupled With Serpentine Tubes for Battery Module,” Applied Thermal Engineering 219 (2023): 119501.

[200] J. Hu, S. Xu, Y. Wang, et al., “Integration of Safety and Energy Storage: Experimental Study on Thermal and Flame-Retardant Properties of Ammonium Polyphosphate/Polyvinyl Alcohol/Modified Melamine Foam as a Composite Phase Change Material,” Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024): 110852.

[201] R. Zheng, R. Chen, D. Xie, et al., “Fabrication of Flame-Retardant Phase-Change Materials for Photo-to-Heat Conversion and Flame-Retardant Mechanism,” Journal of Energy Storage 84 (2024): 110724.

[202] X. Zhang, F. Wang, and L. He, “Flame-Retardant Shape-Stabilized Phase Change Composites With Superior Solar-to-Thermal Conversion,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 274 (2024): 112996.

[203] H. Xu, C. Liu, W. Guo, et al., “Sodium Alginate/Al₂O₃ Fiber Nanocomposite Aerogel With Thermal Insulation and Flame Retardancy Properties,” Chemical Engineering Journal 489 (2024): 151223.

[204] L. Yang, H. Zhang, C. Wang, et al., “Novel Aerogels Based on Supramolecular G-Quadruplex Assembly With Intrinsic Flame Retardancy and Thermal Insulation,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 672 (2024): 618–630.

[205] C. Montanari, Y. Li, H. Chen, M. Yan, and L. A. Berglund, “Transparent Wood for Thermal Energy Storage and Reversible Optical Transmittance,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 22 (2019): 20465–20472.

[206] H. Yang, Y. Liu, J. Li, C. Wang, and Y. Li, “Full-Wood Photoluminescent and Photothermic Materials for Thermal Energy Storage,” Chemical Engineering Journal 403 (2021): 126406.

[207] S. Yuan, H. Wang, X. Li, Z. Du, X. Cheng, and X. Du, “Flame Retardant and Form-Stable Phase Change Composites Based on Phytic Acid/Dopamine-Decorated Delignified Wood for Efficient Solar-Thermal Energy Conversion and Storage,” Composites, Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 160 (2022): 107048.

[208] H. Yue, J. Wang, H. Wang, Z. Du, X. Cheng, and X. Du, “Flame-Retardant and Form-Stable Phase-Change Composites Based on Phytic Acid/ZnO-Decorated Surface-Carbonized Delignified Wood With Superior Solar-Thermal Conversion Efficiency and Improved Thermal Conductivity,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 6 (2023): 8093–8104.

[209] A. H. Alkhazaleh, W. Almanaseer, and A. Alkhazali, “Experimental Investigation on Thermal Properties and Fire Performance of Lauric Acid/Diphenyl Phosphate/Expanded Perlite as a Flame Retardant Phase Change Material for Latent Heat Storage Applications,” Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 56 (2023): 103059.

[210] G. Liang, X. Zhang, J. Zhao, et al., “Intrinsic Flame-Retardant Solid–Solid Organic Phase Change Materials for High-Security Thermal Management,” Small (2025): 2503431.

[211] X. Du, L. Jin, S. Deng, et al., “Recyclable, Self-Healing, and Flame-Retardant Solid-Solid Phase Change Materials Based on Thermally Reversible Cross-Links for Sustainable Thermal Energy Storage,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 36 (2021): 42991–43001.

[212] Y. Zhang, B. Tang, L. Wang, R. Lu, D. Zhao, and S. Zhang, “Novel Hybrid Form-Stable Polyether Phase Change Materials With Good Fire Resistance,” Energy Storage Materials 6 (2017): 46–52.

[213] F. Wang, P. Zhang, Y. Mou, et al., “Synthesis of the Polyethylene Glycol Solid-Solid Phase Change Materials With a Functionalized Graphene Oxide for Thermal Energy Storage,” Polymer Testing 63 (2017): 494–504.

[214] W. Aftab, J. Shi, M. Qin, et al., “Molecularly Elongated Phase Change Materials for Mid-Temperature Solar-Thermal Energy Storage and Electric Conversion,” Energy Storage Materials 52 (2022): 284–290.

[215] M. Liu, J. Qiao, X. Zhang, et al., “Flame Retardant Strategies and Applications of Organic Phase Change Materials: A Review,” Advanced Functional Materials 35, no. 2 (2024): 202412492.

[216] K. Li and B. Yuan, “Developing Flame-Retardant Properties Into Intrinsic Phase Change Materials: A Molecular Design Study Inspired by Phosphorus-Nitrogen Synergy,” Chemical Engineering Journal 509 (2025): 161287.

[217] Y. Xiao, T. Li, Y. Yang, et al., “Exploring Flame-Retardant, Shape-Stabilized Multi-Functional Composite Phase Change Materials,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 282 (2025): 113369.

[218] X. Wang, T. Wang, R. Wei, et al., “Preparation and Performance Study of an Innovative Wood-Based Phase Change Material With High Thermal Conductivity and Fire Retardancy,” Journal of Energy Storage 121 (2025): 116589.

[219] W. Li, Z. Zheng, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “A Solar-Driven Seawater Desalination and Electricity Generation Integrating System Based on Carbon Black-Decorated Magnetic Phase-Change Composites,” Desalination 562 (2023): 116713.

[220] H. Yang, Z. Hu, S. Wu, et al., “Directional-Thermal-Conductive Phase Change Composites Enabling Efficient and Durable Water-Electricity Co-Generation Beyond Daytime,” Advanced Energy Materials 14, no. 43 (2024): 2402926.

[221] Y. Li, Y. Shi, H. Wang, et al., “Recent Advances in Carbon-Based Materials for Solar-Driven Interfacial Photothermal Conversion Water Evaporation: Assemblies, Structures, Applications, and Prospective,” Carbon Energy 5, no. 11 (2023): e331.

[222] S. Chen, Z. Zheng, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Highly Efficient, Antibacterial, and Salt-Resistant Strategy Based on Carbon Black/Chitosan-Decorated Phase-Change Microcapsules for Solar-Powered Seawater Desalination,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 15, no. 13 (2023): 16640–16653.

[223] H. Liu, X. Tian, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Electrochemical Biosensor Based on Tyrosinase-Immobilized Phase-Change Microcapsules for Ultrasensitive Detection of Phenolic Contaminants Under In Situ Thermal Management,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 120 (2023): 349–360.

[224] X. Tian, H. Liu, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Immobilizing Diamine Oxidase on Electroactive Phase-Change Microcapsules to Construct Thermoregulatory Smart Biosensor for Enhancing Detection of Histamine in Foods,” Food Chemistry 397 (2022): 133759.

[225] J. Xiong, Z. Sun, J. Yu, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Thermal Self-Regulatory Smart Biosensor Based on Horseradish Peroxidase-Immobilized Phase-Change Microcapsules for Enhancing Detection of Hazardous Substances,” Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022): 132982.

[226] G. Liao, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “More Accurate and More Efficient: Penicillinase-Immobilized Phase-Change Microcapsules for Detection and Removal of Penicillins Under Microenvironmental Thermal Management,” Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 11, no. 1 (2023): 109148.

[227] H. A. M. Saeed, W. Xu, and H. Yang, “The Application of Cellulosic-Based Materials on Interfacial Solar Steam Generation for Highly Efficient Wastewater Purification: A Review,” Carbon Energy 6, no. 9 (2024): e540.

[228] J. Jing, H. Liu, and X. Wang, “Long-Term Infrared Stealth by Sandwich-Like Phase-Change Composites at Elevated Temperatures via Synergistic Emissivity and Thermal Regulation,” Advanced Functional Materials 34, no. 2 (2023): 2309269.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.