Regulation on Morphology and Electronic Structure Design of Vanadium-Based Sodium Phosphate Cathodes for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation large-scale energy storage systems due to the abundance of sodium resources, low solvation energy, and cost-effectiveness. Among the available cathode materials, vanadium-based sodium phosphate cathodes are particularly notable for their high operating voltage, excellent thermal stability, and superior cycling performance. However, these materials face significant challenges, including sluggish reaction kinetics, the toxicity of vanadium, and poor electronic conductivity. To overcome these limitations and enhance electrochemical performance, various strategies have been explored. These include morphology regulation via diverse synthesis routes and electronic structure optimization through metal doping, which effectively improve the diffusion of Na⁺ and electrons in vanadium-based phosphate cathodes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges associated with V-based polyanion cathodes and examines the role of morphology and electronic structure design in enhancing performance. Key vanadium-based phosphate frameworks, such as orthophosphates (Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃), pyrophosphates (NaVP₂O₇, Na₂(VO)P₂O₇, Na₇V₃(P₂O₇)₄), and mixed phosphates (Na₇V₄(P₂O₇)₄PO₄), are discussed in detail, highlighting recent advances and insights into their structure–property relationships. The design of cathode material morphology offers an effective approach to optimizing material structures, compositions, porosity, and ion/electron diffusion pathways. Simultaneously, electronic structure tuning through element doping allows for the regulation of band structures, electron distribution, diffusion barriers, and the intrinsic conductivity of phosphate compounds. Addressing the challenges associated with vanadium-based sodium phosphate cathode materials, this study proposes feasible solutions and outlines future research directions toward advancement of high-performance vanadium-based polyanion cathodes.

Keywords

cathode / element doping / sodium-ion batteries / structural design / vanadium-based phosphate

References

[1] J. Zhang, Y. Liu, X. Zhao, et al., “A Novel NASICON-Type Na₄MnCr(PO₄)₃ Demonstrating the Energy Density Record of Phosphate Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 11 (2020): 1906348.

[2] T. Liu, Y. Zhang, Z. Jiang, et al, “Exploring Competitive Features of Stationary Sodium Ion Batteries for Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 5 (2019): 1512-1533.

[3] H. Zhang, Y. Gao, X. Liu, et al., “Long-Cycle-Life Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries Toward Large-Scale Energy Storage Systems,” Advanced Energy Materials 13, no. 23 (2023): 2300149.

[4] X. Qi, Q. Dong, H. Dong, et al., “Copper-Induced Lattice Distortion in Na₄Fe₃(PO₄)₂(P₂O₇) Cathode Enabling High Power Density Na-Ion Batteries With Good Cycling Stability,” Energy Storage Materials 73 (2024): 103861.

[5] J. Li, Z. Xu, Z. Ji, Q. Sun, and X. Huang, “Overview on Current Technologies of Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Chinese Journal of Rare Metals 43, no. 2 (2019): 201.

[6] N. Yabuuchi, K. Kubota, M. Dahbi, and S. Komaba, “Research Development on Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Reviews 114, no. 23 (2014): 11636-11682.

[7] M. D. Slater, D. Kim, E. Lee, and C. S. Johnson, “Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 23, no. 8 (2013): 947-958.

[8] K. Chayambuka, G. Mulder, D. L. Danilov, and P. H. L. Notten, “Sodium-Ion Battery Materials and Electrochemical Properties Reviewed,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 16 (2018): 1800079.

[9] C. Delmas, “Sodium and Sodium-Ion Batteries: 50 Years of Research,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 17 (2018): 1703137.

[10] Y. Xiao, S. H. Lee, and Y. K. Sun, “The Application of Metal Sulfides in Sodium Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 3 (2017): 1601329.

[11] C. Vaalma, D. Buchholz, M. Weil, and S. Passerini, “A Cost and Resource Analysis of Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nature Reviews Materials 3, no. 4 (2018): 18013.

[12] H. S. Hirsh, Y. Li, D. H. S. Tan, M. Zhang, E. Zhao, and Y. S. Meng, “Sodium-Ion Batteries Paving the Way for Grid Energy Storage,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 32 (2020): 2001274.

[13] X. Qi, H. Dong, H. Yan, et al., “Hollow Core-Shelled Na₄Fe_2.4Ni_0.6(PO₄)₂P₂O₇ With Tiny-Void Space Capable Fast-Charge and Low-Temperature Sodium Storage,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 40 (2024): e202410590.

[14] J. Deng, W. B. Luo, S. L. Chou, H. K. Liu, and S. X. Dou, “Sodium-Ion Batteries: From Academic Research to Practical Commercialization,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 4 (2018): 1701428.

[15] C. Yang, S. Xin, L. Mai, and Y. You, “Materials Design for High-Safety Sodium-Ion Battery,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 2 (2021): 2000974.

[16] X.-H. Liu, W.-H. Lai, J. Peng, et al., “A NASICON-Typed Na₄Mn_0.5Fe_0.5Al(PO₄)₃ Cathode for Low-Cost and High-Energy Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Carbon Neutralization 1, no. 1 (2022): 49-58.

[17] Y. Niu, Y. Zhao, and M. Xu, “Manganese-Based Polyanionic Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Carbon Neutralization 2, no. 2 (2023): 150-168.

[18] J. Ren, H. Zhu, Y. Fang, et al., “Typical Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries: From Structural Design to Performance Optimization,” Carbon Neutralization 2, no. 3 (2023): 339-377.

[19] H. Pan, Y. S. Hu, and L. Chen, “Room-Temperature Stationary Sodium-Ion Batteries for Large-Scale Electric Energy Storage,” Energy & Environmental Science 6, no. 8 (2013): 2338-2360.

[20] Y. Fang, X. Y. Yu, and X. W. Lou, “A Practical High-Energy Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries Based on Uniform P2-Na_0.7CoO₂ Microspheres,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 56, no. 21 (2017): 5801-5805.

[21] Y. B. Niu, Y. J. Guo, Y. X. Yin, et al., “High-Efficiency Cathode Sodium Compensation for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 32, no. 33 (2020): 2001419.

[22] M. Chen, W. Hua, J. Xiao, et al., “NASICON-Type Air-Stable and All-Climate Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries With Low Cost and High-Power Density,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.

[23] Y. Fang, L. Xiao, X. Ai, Y. Cao, and H. Yang, “Hierarchical Carbon Framework Wrapped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ as a Superior High-Rate and Extended Lifespan Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 27, no. 39 (2015): 5895-5900.

[24] Y. Yue, A. J. Binder, B. Guo, et al., “Mesoporous Prussian Blue Analogues: Template-Free Synthesis and Sodium-Ion Battery Applications,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 53, no. 12 (2014): 3134-3137.

[25] Y. You, X.-L. Wu, Y.-X. Yin, and Y.-G. Guo, “High-Quality Prussian Blue Crystals as Superior Cathode Materials for Room-Temperature Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Energy & Environmental Science 7, no. 5 (2014): 1643-1647.

[26] S. Wang, L. Wang, Z. Zhu, Z. Hu, Q. Zhao, and J. Chen, “All Organic Sodium-Ion Batteries With Na₄C₈H₂O₆,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 53, no. 23 (2014): 5892-5896.

[27] R. Zhao, L. Zhu, Y. Cao, X. Ai, and H. X. Yang, “An Aniline-Nitroaniline Copolymer as a High Capacity Cathode for Na-Ion Batteries,” Electrochemistry Communications 21 (2012): 36-38.

[28] Y. Liu, N. Zhang, F. Wang, X. Liu, L. Jiao, and L. Fan, “Approaching the Downsizing Limit of Maricite NaFePO₄ Toward High-Performance Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 28, no. 30 (2018): 1801917.

[29] Y. Sun, S. Guo, and H. Zhou, “Exploration of Advanced Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 9, no. 23 (2019): 1800212.

[30] Q. Wang, J. Xu, W. Zhang, et al., “Research Progress on Vanadium-Based Cathode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 19 (2018): 8815-8838.

[31] Y. Fang, J. Zhang, L. Xiao, X. Ai, Y. Cao, and H. Yang, “Phosphate Framework Electrode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Advanced Science 4, no. 5 (2017): 1600392.

[32] R. Zhang, N. W. Li, X. B. Cheng, Y. Yin, Q. Zhang, and Y. Guo, “Advanced Micro/Nanostructures for Lithium Metal Anodes,” Advanced Science 4, no. 3 (2017): 1600445.

[33] X. Liu, J. Q. Huang, Q. Zhang, and L. Mai, “Nanostructured Metal Oxides and Sulfides for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 20 (2017): 1601759.

[34] Z. Y. Gu, J. Z. Guo, Y. Yang, et al., “Precisely Controlled Preparation of an Advanced Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂O₂F Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries: The Optimization of Electrochemical Properties and Electrode Kinetics,” Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers 6, no. 4 (2019): 988-995.

[35] H. Xu, C. Peng, Y. Yan, et al., “All-In-One” Integrated Ultrathin SnS₂@3D Multichannel Carbon Matrix Power High-Areal-Capacity Lithium Battery Anode,” Carbon Energy 1, no. 2 (2019): 276-288.

[36] S. Deng, H. Zhu, G. Wang, et al., “Boosting Fast Energy Storage by Synergistic Engineering of Carbon and Deficiency,” Nature Communications 11, no. 1 (2020): 1-11.

[37] X. Liang, M. Chen, G. Pan, J. Wu, and X. Xia, “New Carbon for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion,” Functional Materials Letters 12, no. 04 (2019): 1950049.

[38] T. Liu, L. Zhang, B. Cheng, X. Hu, and J. Yu, “Holey Graphene for Electrochemical Energy Storage,” Cell Reports Physical Science 1, no. 10 (2020): 100215.

[39] J. M. Luo, Y. G. Sun, S. J. Guo, et al., “Hollow Carbon Nanospheres: Syntheses and Applications for Post Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Materials Chemistry Frontiers 4, no. 8 (2020): 2283-2306.

[40] Y. Zhao, L. P. Wang, M. T. Sougrati, et al., “A Review on Design Strategies for Carbon Based Metal Oxides and Sulfides Nanocomposites for High Performance Li and Na Ion Battery Anodes,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 9 (2017): 1601424.

[41] Y. Li, M. Chen, B. Liu, Y. Zhang, X. Liang, and X. Xia, “Heteroatom Doping: An Effective Way to Boost Sodium Ion Storage,” Advanced Energy Materials 10, no. 27 (2020): 2000927.

[42] L. Xiao, F. Ji, J. Zhang, X. Chen, and Y. Fang, “Doping Regulation in Polyanionic Compounds for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Small 19, no. 1 (2023): 2205732.

[43] S. Chen, C. Wu, L. Shen, et al., “Challenges and Perspectives for NASICON-Type Electrode Materials for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 48 (2017): 1700431.

[44] H. Luo, B. Wang, F. Wu, et al., “Synergistic Nanostructure and Heterointerface Design Propelled Ultra-Efficient In-Situ Self-Transformation of Zinc-Ion Battery Cathodes With Favorable Kinetics,” Nano Energy 81 (2021): 105601.

[45] X. Lv, W. Wei, B. Huang, and Y. Dai, “Achieving High Energy Density for Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes by Si/C Nanostructure Design,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 5 (2019): 2165-2171.

[46] Y. Fang, X.-Y. Yu, and X. W. Lou, “Nanostructured Electrode Materials for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Matter 1, no. 1 (2019): 90-114.

[47] J. Wu, M. Ihsan-Ul-Haq, F. Ciucci, B. Huang, and J.-K. Kim, “Rationally Designed Nanostructured Metal Chalcogenides for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 34 (2021): 582-628.

[48] W. Ge, X. Chen, R. Ma, S. Zheng, N. Shang, and X. Zhao, “Recent Advances in 0D Ni/Co-Based Hollow Electrocatalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting,” Chemical Research in Chinese Universities 40, no. 3 (2024): 437-450.

[49] S. Zhang, H. Tan, X. Rui, and Y. Yu, “Vanadium-Based Materials: Next Generation Electrodes Powering the Battery Revolution?,” Accounts of Chemical Research 53, no. 8 (2020): 1660-1671.

[50] X. Xu, F. Xiong, J. Meng, et al., “Vanadium-Based Nanomaterials: A Promising Family for Emerging Metal-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 10 (2020): 1904398.

[51] Z. Lv, M. Ling, M. Yue, et al., “Vanadium-Based Polyanionic Compounds as Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Toward High-Energy and High-Power Applications,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 55 (2021): 361-390.

[52] Z.-L. Hao, M. Du, J.-Z. Guo, et al., “Nanodesigns for Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃-Based Cathode in Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Topical Review,” Nanotechnology 34, no. 20 (2023): 202003.

[53] X. Zhang, X. Rui, D. Chen, et al., “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃: An Advanced Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nanoscale 11, no. 6 (2019): 2556-2576.

[54] H. Xu, Q. Yan, W. Yao, C.-S. Lee, and Y. Tang, “Mainstream Optimization Strategies for Cathode Materials of Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Small Structures 3, no. 4 (2022): 2100217.

[55] X. Cao, A. Pan, S. Liu, et al., “Chemical Synthesis of 3D Graphene-Like Cages for Sodium-Ion Batteries Applications,” Advanced Energy Materials 7, no. 20 (2017): 1700797.

[56] W. Zhou, L. Xue, X. Lü, et al., “Na_xMV(PO₄)₃ (M = Mn, Fe, Ni) Structure and Properties for Sodium Extraction,” Nano Letters 16, no. 12 (2016): 7836-7841.

[57] S. K. Sapra, M. Das, M. W. Raja, J.-K. Chang, and R. S. Dhaka, “Flexible Trilayer Cellulosic Paper Separators Engineered With the BaTiO₃ Ferroelectric Fillers for High Energy Density Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 13, no. 3 (2025): 1996-2009.

[58] G. Wan, W. Dou, H. Zhu, et al., “Empowering Higher Energy Sodium-Ion Battery Cathode by Oxygen Chemistry,” Interdisciplinary Materials 2, no. 3 (2023): 416-422.

[59] Y. Yuan, Q. Wei, S. Yang, et al., “Towards High-Performance Phosphate-Based Polyanion-Type Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 50 (2022): 760-782.

[60] S. D. Shraer, N. D. Luchinin, I. A. Trussov, et al., “Development of Vanadium-Based Polyanion Positive Electrode Active Materials for High-Voltage Sodium-Based Batteries,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (2022): 4097.

[61] R. Liu, S. Zheng, Y. Yuan, et al., “Counter-Intuitive Structural Instability Aroused by Transition Metal Migration in Polyanionic Sodium Ion Host,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 3 (2021): 2003256.

[62] S.-Y. Chung, J. T. Bloking, and Y.-M. Chiang, “Electronically Conductive Phospho-Olivines as Lithium Storage Electrodes,” Nature Materials 1, no. 2 (2002): 123-128.

[63] T. Jin, H. Li, K. Zhu, P. F. Wang, P. Liu, and L. Jiao, “Polyanion-Type Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Society Reviews 49, no. 8 (2020): 2342-2377.

[64] Y. Li, G. Liu, J. Che, et al., “Review on Layered Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Degradation Mechanisms, Modification Strategies, and Applications,” Interdisciplinary Materials 4, no. 1 (2025): 24-51.

[65] D. Zhao, C. Wang, Y. Ding, M. Ding, Y. Cao, and Z. Chen, “Will Vanadium-Based Electrode Materials Become the Future Choice for Metal-Ion Batteries?,” Chemsuschem 15, no. 12 (2022): e202200479.

[66] Y. Dong, Y. Zhao, H. Lin, and C. Liu, “Effect of Physical and Chemical Properties of Vanadium Slag From Stone Coal on the Form of Vanadium,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 26 (2019): 33004-33013.

[67] H. Gao, Y. Li, K. Park, and J. B. Goodenough, “Sodium Extraction From NASICON-Structured Na₃MnTi(PO₄)₃ Through Mn(III)/Mn(II) and Mn(IV)/Mn(III) Redox Couples,” Chemistry of Materials 28, no. 18 (2016): 6553-6559.

[68] Y. Zhou, G. Xu, J. Lin, et al., “Reversible Multielectron Redox Chemistry in a NASICON-Type Cathode Toward High-Energy-Density and Long-Life Sodium-Ion Full Batteries,” Advanced Materials 35, no. 44 (2023): 2304428.

[69] J. Pati and R. S. Dhaka, “Mixed Polyanionic NaFe_1.6V_0.4(PO₄)(SO₄)₂@CNT Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Electrochemical Diffusion Kinetics and Distribution of Relaxation Time Analysis at Different Temperatures,” Journal of Power Sources 609 (2024): 234646.

[70] S. Chen, C. Wu, L. Shen, et al., “Challenges and Perspectives for NASICON-Type Electrode Materials for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 48 (2017): 1700431.

[71] I. V. Zatovsky, “NASICON-Type Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃,” Acta Crystallographica. Section E, Structure Reports Online 66, no. 2 (2010): i12.

[72] K. Saravanan, C. W. Mason, A. Rudola, K. H. Wong, and P. Balaya, “The First Report on Excellent Cycling Stability and Superior Rate Capability of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 3, no. 4 (2013): 444-450.

[73] Z. Jian, W. Han, X. Lu, et al., “Superior Electrochemical Performance and Storage Mechanism of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode for Room-Temperature Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 3, no. 2 (2013): 156-160.

[74] Z. Jian, C. Yuan, W. Han, et al., “Atomic Structure and Kinetics of NASICON Na_xV₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Functional Materials 24, no. 27 (2014): 4265-4272.

[75] X. Chang, Q. Zhu, N. Sun, et al., “Graphene-Bound Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Film Electrode With Excellent Cycle and Rate Performance for Na-Ion Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 269 (2018): 282-290.

[76] R. Fang, J. Olchowka, C. Pablos, R. Bianchini Nuernberg, L. Croguennec, and S. Cassaignon, “Impact of the F⁻ for O²⁻ Substitution in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F_3-yO_y on Their Transport Properties and Electrochemical Performance,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 5, no. 1 (2022): 1065-1075.

[77] P. Nie, Y. Zhu, L. Shen, et al., “From Biomolecule to Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Nitrogen-Decorated Carbon Hybrids: Highly Reversible Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2, no. 43 (2014): 18606-18612.

[78] S. Tao, X. Wang, P. Cui, et al., “Fabrication of Graphene-Encapsulated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ as High-Performance Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” RSC Advances 6, no. 49 (2016): 43591-43597.

[79] R. Klee, M. J. Aragón, P. Lavela, R. Alcántara, and J. L. Tirado, “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanorods With Improved Electrode-Electrolyte Interface as Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 35 (2016): 23151-23159.

[80] Q. Zheng, X. Ni, L. Lin, et al., “Towards Enhanced Sodium Storage by Investigation of the Li Ion Doping and Rearrangement Mechanism in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 9 (2018): 4209-4218.

[81] Q. Zheng, H. Yi, W. Liu, X. Li, and H. Zhang, “Improving the Electrochemical Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode in Sodium Ion Batteries Through Ce/V Substitution Based on Rational Design and Synthesis Optimization,” Electrochimica Acta 238 (2017): 288-297.

[82] H. Kim, I. Park, D.-H. Seo, et al., “New Iron-Based Mixed-Polyanion Cathodes for Lithium and Sodium Rechargeable Batteries: Combined First Principles Calculations and Experimental Study,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 134, no. 25 (2012): 10369-10372.

[83] H. Li, X. Yu, Y. Bai, et al., “Effects of Mg Doping on the Remarkably Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3, no. 18 (2015): 9578-9586.

[84] L. Si, Z. Yuan, L. Hu, Y. Zhu, and Y. Qian, “Uniform and Continuous Carbon Coated Sodium Vanadium Phosphate Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Battery,” Journal of Power Sources 272 (2014): 880-885.

[85] Q. Zhu, X. Chang, N. Sun, et al., “Microorganism-Moulded Pomegranate-Like Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanocomposite for Advanced Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 20 (2017): 9982-9990.

[86] J. Z. Guo, X. L. Wu, F. Wan, J. Wang, X. Zhang, and R. Wang, “A Superior Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃-Based Nanocomposite Enhanced by Both N-Doped Coating Carbon and Graphene as the Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Chemistry—A European Journal 21, no. 48 (2015): 17371-17378.

[87] J. Zhang, T. Yuan, H. Wan, et al., “Surface-Engineering Enhanced Sodium Storage Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode via In-Situ Self-Decorated Conducting Polymer Route,” Science China Chemistry 60, no. 12 (2017): 1546-1553.

[88] L. Sun, Y. Liu, R. Shao, J. Wu, R. Jiang, and Z. Jin, “Recent Progress and Future Perspective on Practical Silicon Anode-Based Lithium Ion Batteries,” Energy Storage Materials 46 (2022): 482-502.

[89] C. Gu, H.-M. Xu, S.-K. Han, M.-R. Gao, and S.-H. Yu, “Soft Chemistry of Metastable Metal Chalcogenide Nanomaterials,” Chemical Society Reviews 50, no. 12 (2021): 6671-6683.

[90] Z. He, J.-L. Wang, S.-M. Chen, J.-W. Liu, and S.-H. Yu, “Self-Assembly of Nanowires: From Dynamic Monitoring to Precision Control,” Accounts of Chemical Research 55, no. 11 (2022): 1480-1491.

[91] F. Lv, Z. Hong, Z. Ahmad, H. Li, Y. Wu, and Y. Huang, “Design of Flexible Piezoelectric Nanocomposite for Energy Harvesters: A Review,” Energy Material Advances 4 (2023): 0043.

[92] S.-K. Jung, I. Hwang, D. Chang, et al., “Nanoscale Phenomena in Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Reviews 120, no. 14 (2019): 6684-6737.

[93] A. A. AbdelHamid, A. Mendoza-Garcia, and J. Y. Ying, “Advances in and Prospects of Nanomaterials' Morphological Control for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries,” Nano Energy 93 (2022): 106860.

[94] T. Wei, G. Yang, and C. Wang, “Bottom-Up Assembly of Strongly-Coupled Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C into Hierarchically Porous Hollow Nanospheres for High-Rate And-Stable Na-Ion Storage,” Nano Energy 39 (2017): 363-370.

[95] W. Duan, Z. Zhu, H. Li, et al., “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Core-Shell Nanocomposites for Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2, no. 23 (2014): 8668-8675.

[96] H. Zhang, L. Wang, L. Ma, et al., “Surface Crystal Modification of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ to Cast Intermediate Na₂V₂(PO₄)₃ Phase Toward High-Rate Sodium Storage,” Advanced Science 11 3 (2024): 2306168.

[97] H. Zhang, S. Zhang, B. Guo, et al., “MoS₂ Hollow Multishelled Nanospheres Doped Fe Single Atoms Capable of Fast Phase Transformation for Fast-Charging Na-Ion Batteries,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 63, no. 17 (2024): e202400285.

[98] H.-G. Wang, S. Yuan, D.-L. Ma, X.-B. Zhang, and J.-M. Yan, “Electrospun Materials for Lithium and Sodium Rechargeable Batteries: From Structure Evolution to Electrochemical Performance,” Energy & Environmental Science 8, no. 6 (2015): 1660-1681.

[99] Y. Dong, S. Li, K. Zhao, et al, “Hierarchical Zigzag Na_1.25V₃O₈ Nanowires With Topotactically Encoded Superior Performance for Sodium-Ion Battery Cathodes,” Energy & Environmental Science 8, no. 4 (2015): 1267-1275.

[100] S. Kalluri, W. K. Pang, K. H. Seng, et al., “One-Dimensional Nanostructured Design of Li_1+x(Mn_1/3Ni_1/3Fe_1/3)O₂ as a Dual Cathode for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3, no. 1 (2015): 250-257.

[101] Y. Jiang, Y. Yao, J. Shi, L. Zeng, L. Gu, and Y. Yu, “One-Dimensional Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanowires as Cathode Materials for Long-Life and High Rate Na-Ion Batteries,” ChemNanoMat 2, no. 7 (2016): 726-731.

[102] J. Liu, K. Tang, K. Song, P. A. van Aken, Y. Yu, and J. Maier, “Electrospun Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanofibers as Stable Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nanoscale 6, no. 10 (2014): 5081-5086.

[103] J. Liu, J. Liang, C. Wang, and J. Ma, “Electrospun CoSe@ N-Doped Carbon Nanofibers With Highly Capacitive Li Storage,” Journal of Energy Chemistry 33 (2019): 160-166.

[104] L. Li, S. Peng, J. K. Y. Lee, D. Ji, M. Srinivasan, and S. Ramakrishna, “Electrospun Hollow Nanofibers for Advanced Secondary Batteries,” Nano Energy 39 (2017): 111-139.

[105] F. Li, Y.-E. Zhu, J. Sheng, L. Yang, Y. Zhang, and Z. Zhou, “GO-Induced Preparation of Flake-Shaped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@rGO as High-Rate and Long-Life Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 48 (2017): 25276-25281.

[106] F. Hu and X. Jiang, “A Stable and Superior Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanocomposites as Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Inorganic Chemistry Communications 115 (2020): 107860.

[107] Y. Yan, Z. Ma, H. Lin, et al., “Hydrogel Self-Templated Synthesis of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C@CNT Porous Network as Ultrastable Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Composites Communications 13 (2019): 97-102.

[108] H. Li, X. Bi, Y. Bai, et al., “High-Rate, Durable Sodium-Ion Battery Cathode Enabled by Carbon-Coated Micro-Sized Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Particles With Interconnected Vertical Nanowalls,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 3, no. 9 (2016): 1500740.

[109] X. R. Qi, Y. Liu, L. L. Ma, et al., “Delicate Synthesis of Quasi-Inverse Opal Structural Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/N-C and Na₄MnV(PO₄)₃/N-C as Cathode for High-Rate Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Rare Metals 41, no. 5 (2022): 1637-1646.

[110] B. Xu, H. Wang, Q. Zhu, et al., “Reduced Graphene Oxide as a Multi-Functional Conductive Binder for Supercapacitor Electrodes,” Energy Storage Materials 12 (2018): 128-136.

[111] B. Hou, L. Ma, X. Zang, et al., “Design and Construction of 3D Porous Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C as High Performance Cathode for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Chemical Research in Chinese Universities 37 (2021): 265-273.

[112] J. Zhang, Y. Fang, L. Xiao, et al., “Graphene-Scaffolded Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Microsphere Cathode With High Rate Capability and Cycling Stability for Sodium Ion Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 9, no. 8 (2017): 7177-7184.

[113] C. Liu, Z.-X. Zhang, R. Tan, J. W. Deng, Q. H. Li, and X. C. Duan, “Design of Cross-Welded Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanofibrous Mats and Their Application in Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Rare Metals 41, no. 3 (2022): 806-813.

[114] G. Cui, H. Wang, F. Yu, et al., “Scalable Synthesis of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C With High Safety and Ultrahigh-Rate Performance for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering 46 (2022): 280-286.

[115] Y. Jiang, X. Zhou, D. Li, X. Cheng, F. Liu, and Y. Yu, “Highly Reversible Na Storage in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ by Optimizing Nanostructure and Rational Surface Engineering,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 16 (2018): 1800068.

[116] H. Li, Y. Bai, F. Wu, Y. Li, and C. Wu, “Budding Willow Branches Shaped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanofibers Synthesized via An Electrospinning Technique and Used as Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 273 (2015): 784-792.

[117] Z. Zhou, N. Li, C. Zhang, X. Chen, F. Xu, and C. Peng, “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Nanoparticles Encapsulated in Carbon Nanofibers With Excellent Na⁺ Storage for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Solid State Ionics 326 (2018): 77-81.

[118] H. Li, Y. Bai, F. Wu, Q. Ni, and C. Wu, “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanorods as Advanced Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Solid State Ionics 278 (2015): 281-286.

[119] Z. Chu and C. Yue, “Core-Shell Structured Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanocrystals Embedded in Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: A High-Performance Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Solid State Ionics 287 (2016): 36-41.

[120] X. Li, S. Wang, X. Tang, et al., “Porous Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanoplates for High-Performance Sodium Storage,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 539 (2019): 168-174.

[121] L. Luo, B. Cheng, S. Chen, Z. Ge, and H. Zhuo, “Three-Dimensional Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Carbon Nanofiber Networks Prepared by Electrospinning as Self-Standing Cathodes for High Performance Na-Ion Batteries,” Materials Letters 232 (2018): 153-156.

[122] W. Ren, Z. Zheng, C. Xu, et al., “Self-Sacrificed Synthesis of Three-Dimensional Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Nanofiber Network for High-Rate Sodium-Ion Full Batteries,” Nano Energy 25 (2016): 145-153.

[123] E. Wang, W. Xiang, R. Rajagopalan, et al., “Construction of 3D Pomegranate-Like Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Conducting Carbon Composites for High-Power Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 20 (2017): 9833-9841.

[124] X. Cao, A. Pan, B. Yin, et al., “Nanoflake-Constructed Porous Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Hierarchical Microspheres as a Bicontinuous Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries Applications,” Nano Energy 60 (2019): 312-323.

[125] H. Li, C. Wu, Y. Bai, F. Wu, and M. Wang, “Controllable Synthesis of High-Rate and Long Cycle-Life Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 326 (2016): 14-22.

[126] W. Yang, W. He, X. Zhang, et al., “Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/N-Doped Carbon Nanocomposites With Sandwich Structure for Cheap, Ultrahigh-Rate, and Long-Life Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ChemElectroChem 6, no. 7 (2019): 2020-2028.

[127] X. Rui, W. Sun, C. Wu, Y. Yu, and Q. Yan, “An Advanced Sodium-Ion Battery Composed of Carbon Coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ in a Porous Graphene Network,” Advanced Materials 27, no. 42 (2015): 6670-6676.

[128] J. Fang, S. Wang, Z. Li, et al., “Porous Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Nanoparticles Enwrapped in Three-Dimensional Graphene for High Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 4, no. 4 (2016): 1180-1185.

[129] Y. Jiang, Z. Yang, W. Li, et al., “Nanoconfined Carbon-Coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Particles in Mesoporous Carbon Enabling Ultralong Cycle Life for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 5, no. 10 (2015): 1402104.

[130] C. Zhu, P. Kopold, P. A. van Aken, J. Maier, and Y. Yu, “High Power-High Energy Sodium Battery Based on Threefold Interpenetrating Network,” Advanced Materials 28, no. 12 (2016): 2409-2416.

[131] R. Rajagopalan, L. Zhang, S. X. Dou, and H. K. Liu, “Tuned In Situ Growth of Nanolayered rGO on 3D Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Matrices: A Step Toward Long Lasting, High Power Na-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 3, no. 13 (2016): 1600007.

[132] S. Tao, P. Cui, W. Huang, et al., “Sol-Gel Design Strategy for Embedded Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Particles Into Carbon Matrices for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Carbon 96 (2016): 1028-1033.

[133] X. Zhong, Z. Yang, Y. Jiang, W. Li, L. Gu, and Y. Yu, “Carbon-Coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Anchored on Freestanding Graphite Foam for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Cathodes,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 47 (2016): 32360-32365.

[134] H. Li, X. Bi, Y. Bai, et al., “High-Rate, Durable Sodium-Ion Battery Cathode Enabled by Carbon-Coated Micro-Sized Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Particles With Interconnected Vertical Nanowalls,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 3, no. 9 (2016): 1500740.

[135] K. Kubota, S. Kumakura, Y. Yoda, K. Kuroki, and S. Komaba, “Electrochemistry and Solid-State Chemistry of NaMeO₂ (Me = 3 d transition metals),” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 17 (2018): 1703415.

[136] Y. Sun, S. Guo, and H. Zhou, “Adverse Effects of Interlayer-Gliding in Layered Transition-Metal Oxides on Electrochemical Sodium-Ion Storage,” Energy & Environmental Science 12, no. 3 (2019): 825-840.

[137] Y. Zhang, S. Guo, and H. Xu, “Synthesis of Uniform Hierarchical Na₃V_1.95Mn_0.05(PO₄)₂F₃@C Hollow Microspheres as a Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 10 (2018): 4525-4534.

[138] H. Li, T. Jin, X. Chen, et al., “Rational Architecture Design Enables Superior Na Storage in Greener NASICON-Na₄MnV(PO₄)₃ Cathode,” Advanced Energy Materials 8, no. 24 (2018): 1801418.

[139] J.-S. Park, J. Kim, J. H. Jo, and S.-T. Myung, “Role of the Mn Substituent in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for High-Rate Sodium Storage,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 34 (2018): 16627-16637.

[140] L. Zhu, M. Zhang, L. Yang, et al., “Engineering Hierarchical Structure and Surface of Na₄MnV(PO₄)₃ for Ultrafast Sodium Storage by a Scalable Ball Milling Approach,” Nano Energy 99 (2022): 107396.

[141] H. Yi, M. Ling, W. Xu, X. Li, Q. Zheng, and H. Zhang, “VSC-Doping and VSU-Doping of Na₃V_2−xTi_x(PO₄)₂F₃ Compounds for Sodium Ion Battery Cathodes: Analysis of Electrochemical Performance and Kinetic Properties,” Nano Energy 47 (2018): 340-352.

[142] W. Shen, C. Wang, Q. Xu, H. Liu, and Y. Wang, “Nitrogen-Doping-Induced Defects of a Carbon Coating Layer Facilitate Na-Storage in Electrode Materials,” Advanced Energy Materials 5, no. 1 (2015): 1400982.

[143] F. Xie, L. Zhang, D. Su, M. Jaroniec, and S. Z. Qiao, “Na₂Ti₃O₇@N-Doped Carbon Hollow Spheres for Sodium-Ion Batteries With Excellent Rate Performance,” Advanced Materials 29, no. 24 (2017): 1700989.

[144] Z. Cui, Q. Liu, C. Xu, et al., “A New Strategy to Effectively Alleviate Volume Expansion and Enhance the Conductivity of Hierarchical MnO@C Nanocomposites for Lithium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 41 (2017): 21699-21708.

[145] Y. Zhu, E. Xu, J. Zhang, et al., “Fabrication of a Sandwiched Core Carbon Sphere@Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂O₂F@N-Doped Carbon Cathode for Superior Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 4, no. 4 (2021): 3952-3961.

[146] Q. Wang, M. Zhang, C. Zhou, and Y. Chen, “Concerted Ion-Exchange Mechanism for Sodium Diffusion and Its Promotion in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Framework,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 122, no. 29 (2018): 16649-16654.

[147] L. Liang, X. Li, F. Zhao, et al., “Construction and Operating Mechanism of High-Rate Mo-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Nanowires Toward Practicable Wide-Temperature-Tolerance Na-Ion and Hybrid Li/Na-Ion Batteries,” Advanced Energy Materials 11, no. 21 (2021): 2100287.

[148] X. Li, Y. Huang, J. Wang, et al., “High Valence Mo-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C as a High Rate and Stable Cycle-Life Cathode for Sodium Battery,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 4 (2018): 1390-1396.

[149] Y. Huang, X. Li, J. Wang, et al., “Superior Na-Ion Storage Achieved by Ti Substitution in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃,” Energy Storage Materials 15 (2018): 108-115.

[150] H. Shu, X. Wang, W. Wen, et al., “Effective Enhancement of Electrochemical Properties for LiFePO₄/C Cathode Materials by Na and Ti Co-Doping,” Electrochimica Acta 89 (2013): 479-487.

[151] K. M. Bui, V. A. Dinh, S. Okada, and T. Ohno, “Hybrid Functional Study of the NASICON-Type Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃: Crystal and Electronic Structures, and Polaron-Na Vacancy Complex Diffusion,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 17, no. 45 (2015): 30433-30439.

[152] L. Zhao, H. Zhao, X. Long, Z. Li, and Z. Du, “Superior High-Rate and Ultralong-Lifespan Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Cathode by Enhancing the Conductivity Both in Bulk and on Surface,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 42 (2018): 35963-35971.

[153] H. Zhuo, X. Wang, A. Tang, Z. Liu, S. Gamboa, and P. J. Sebastian, “The Preparation of NaV_1−xCr_xPO₄F Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Battery,” Journal of Power Sources 160, no. 1 (2006): 698-703.

[154] H. Yu, X. Ruan, J. Wang, et al., “From Solid-Solution MXene to Cr-Substituted Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃: Breaking the Symmetry of Sodium Ions for High-Voltage and Ultrahigh-Rate Cathode Performance,” ACS Nano 16, no. 12 (2022): 21174-21185.

[155] J. Lee, S. Park, Y. Park, et al., “Chromium Doping into NASICON-Structured Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode for High-Power Na-Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 422 (2021): 130052.

[156] Y. Wang, G. Su, X. Li, et al, “Boosting Sodium-Storage Properties of Hierarchical Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Micro-Flower Cathodes by Tiny Cr Doping: The Effect of “Four Ounces Moving a Thousand Pounds,” Nano Research 17, no. 1 (2023): 1-10.

[157] H. Xu, M. Xuan, W. Xiao, et al., “Lithium Ion Conductivity in Double Antiperovskite Li_6.5OS_1.5I_1.5: Alloying and Boundary Effects,” ACS Applied Energy Materials 2, no. 9 (2019): 6288-6294.

[158] C. Xu, R. Xiao, J. Zhao, et al., “Mn-Rich Phosphate Cathodes for Na-Ion Batteries With Superior Rate Performance,” ACS Energy Letters 7, no. 1 (2021): 97-107.

[159] T. Qiu, L. Yang, Y. Xiang, et al., “Heterogeneous Interface Design for Enhanced Sodium Storage: Sb Quantum Dots Confined by Functional Carbon,” Small Methods 5, no. 7 (2021): 2100188.

[160] C. Xu, J. Zhao, Y.-A. Wang, et al., “Reversible Activation of V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ Redox Couples in NASICON Phosphate Cathodes,” Advanced Energy Materials 12, no. 25 (2022): 2200966.

[161] L. Zhao, H. Zhao, Z. Du, et al., “Computational and Experimental Understanding of Al-Doped Na₃V_2−xAl_x(PO₄)₃ Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries: Electronic Structure, Ion Dynamics and Electrochemical Properties,” Electrochimica Acta 282 (2018): 510-519.

[162] L. Zhao, H. Zhao, Z. Du, et al., “Delicate Lattice Modulation Enables Superior Na Storage Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ as Both an Anode and Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Understanding the Role of Calcium Substitution for Vanadium,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 16 (2019): 9807-9814.

[163] H. Li, H. Tang, C. Ma, et al., “Understanding the Electrochemical Mechanisms Induced by Gradient Mg²⁺ Distribution of Na-Rich Na_3+xV_2−xMg_x(PO₄)₃/C for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Chemistry of Materials 30, no. 8 (2018): 2498-2505.

[164] Y. Chen, Z. Tian, J. Li, and T. Zhou, “In-Situ Constructing Pearl Necklace-Shaped Heterostructure: Zn²⁺ Substituted Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Attached on Carbon Nano Fibers With High Performance for Half and Full Na Ion Cells,” Chemical Engineering Journal 472 (2023): 145041.

[165] W. Wu, J. Liang, J. Yan, and W. Mao, “Synthesis of Li₃Ni_xV_2−x(PO₄)₃/C Cathode Materials and Their Electrochemical Performance for Lithium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 17, no. 7 (2013): 2027-2033.

[166] S. Novikova, S. Yaroslavtsev, V. Rusakov, T. Kulova, A. Skundin, and A. Yaroslavtsev, “(LiFe_1−xM_xPO₄)-P-II/C (M-II = Co, Ni, Mg) as Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 122 (2014): 180-186.

[167] W. Zheng, R. Gao, T. Zhou, and X. Huang, “Enhanced Electrochemical Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ With Ni²⁺ Doping by a Spray Drying-Assisted Process for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Solid State Ionics 324 (2018): 183-190.

[168] H. Li, Y. Bai, F. Wu, Q. Ni, and C. Wu, “Na-Rich Na_3+xV_2−xNi_x(PO₄)₃/C for Sodium Ion Batteries: Controlling the Doping Site and Improving the Electrochemical Performances,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 8, no. 41 (2016): 27779-27787.

[169] S. K. Sapra, J.-K. Chang, and R. S. Dhaka, “Improved Electrochemical Performance of NASICON Type Na₃V_2-xCo_x(PO₄)₃/C (x = 0-0.15) Cathode for High Rate and Stable Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 16, no. 33 (2024): 43535-43547.

[170] Z. Hao, X. Shi, W. Zhu, et al., “Boosting Multielectron Reaction Stability of Sodium Vanadium Phosphate by High-Entropy Substitution,” ACS Nano 18, no. 13 (2024): 9354-9364.

[171] Y. Zhou, G. Xu, J. Lin, et al., “A Multicationic-Substituted Configurational Entropy-Enabled NASICON Cathode for High-Power Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Nano Energy 128 (2024): 109812.

[172] J. Fang, S. Wang, X. Yao, X. Hu, Y. Wang, and H. Wang, “Ration Design of Porous Mn-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode for High Rate and Super Stable Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 295 (2019): 262-269.

[173] X.-R. Qi, Y. Liu, L.-L. Ma, et al., “Delicate Synthesis of Quasi-Inverse Opal Structural Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/NC and Na₄MnV(PO₄)₃/NC as Cathode for High-Rate Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Rare Metals 41, no. 5 (2022): 1637-1646.

[174] H. Ma, J. Bai, P. Wang, et al., “Double-Carbon-Layer Coated Na₄MnV(PO₄)₃ Towards High-Performance Sodium-Ion Full Batteries,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 9, no. 30 (2022): 2201386.

[175] G. Cui, Q. Dong, Z. Wang, et al., “Achieving Highly Reversible and Fast Sodium Storage of Na₄VMn(PO₄)₃/C-rGO Composite With Low-Fraction rGO via Spray-Drying Technique,” Nano Energy 89 (2021): 106462.

[176] J. Zhang, X. Zhao, Y. Song, et al., “Understanding the Superior Sodium-Ion Storage in a Novel Na_3.5Mn_0.5V_1.5(PO₄)₃ Cathode,” Energy Storage Materials 23 (2019): 25-34.

[177] B. Zhang, H. Chen, H. Tong, et al., “Synthesis and Electrochemical Performance of Ni Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Cathode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 728 (2017): 976-983.

[178] X. Wang, W. Wang, B. Zhu, F. Qian, and Z. Fang, “Mo-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Composites for High Stable Sodium Ion Battery Cathode,” Frontiers of Materials Science 12 (2018): 53-63.

[179] H. Ding, X. He, Q. Tao, J. Teng, and J. Li, “Ti-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Activates Additional Ti³⁺/Ti⁴⁺ and V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ Redox Pairs for Superior Sodium Ion Storage,” Energy & Fuels 37, no. 5 (2023): 4132-4142.

[180] Q. Wang, Y. Zhao, J. Gao, H. Geng, J. Li, and H. Jin, “Triggering the Reversible Reaction of V³⁺/V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ by Cr³⁺ Substitution,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 45 (2020): 50315-50323.

[181] Y. Ruan, K. Wang, S. Song, J. Liu, and X. Han, “Improved Structural Stability and Electrochemical Performance of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ Cathode Material by Cr Doping,” Ionics 23 (2017): 1097-1105.

[182] X. Liu, G. Feng, E. Wang, et al., “Insight Into Preparation of Fe-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C From Aspects of Particle Morphology Design, Crystal Structure Modulation, and Carbon Graphitization Regulation,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, no. 13 (2019): 12421-12430.

[183] T. Wu, J. Sun, M. Ke, C. Y. Lim, and L. Lu, “Substantial Doping Engineering in Na₃V_2−xFe_x(PO₄)₃ (0≤x≤0.15) as High-Rate Cathode for Sodium-Ion Battery,” Materials & Design 186 (2020): 108287.

[184] Y. Chen, Y. Xu, X. Sun, and C. Wang, “Effect of Al Substitution on the Enhanced Electrochemical Performance and Strong Structure Stability of Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Composite Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Power Sources 375 (2018): 82-92.

[185] G. Xu and G. Sun, “Mg²⁺-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Decorated With Graphene Sheets: An Ultrafast Na-Storage Cathode for Advanced Energy Storage,” Ceramics International 42, no. 13 (2016): 14774-14781.

[186] Y. Chen, J. Cheng, Y. Wang, et al., “Insights into the Elevated Electrochemical Performance and Kinetic Characteristics of Magnesium-Substituted Na₃V_2−xMg_x(PO₄)₃/C With Superior Rate Capability and Long Lifespan,” Journal of Materials Science 55 (2020): 13141-13156.

[187] M. Jiang, D. Xu, B. Yang, C. Zhang, and M. Cao, “Oxygen Vacancy Engineering in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Boosting Sodium Storage Kinetics,” Advanced Materials Interfaces 8, no. 13 (2021): 2100188.

[188] D. Zhang, P. Feng, B. Xu, et al., “High Rate Performance of Na₃V_2−xCu_x(PO₄)₃/C Cathodes for Sodium Ion Batteries,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 164, no. 14 (2017): A3563.

[189] L. Bi, X. Li, X. Liu, Q. Zheng, and D. Lin, “Enhanced Cycling Stability and Rate Capability in a La-Doped Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Cathode for High-Performance Sodium Ion Batteries,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 7, no. 8 (2019): 7693-7699.

[190] J. Cheng, Y. Chen, S. Sun, et al., “Boosting the Rate Capability and Cycle Life of Zr-Substituted Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Enwrapped on Carbon Nanotubes for Symmetric Na-Ion Batteries,” Electrochimica Acta 385 (2021): 138427.

[191] C. Liu, C. Qian, H. Dong, Z. Lu, Q. Huang, and Y. Chen, “Defect Regulation of Co²⁺ Substituting V³⁺ in Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Superior Sodium Storage Performance: Experimental and Theoretical Study,” Composites Communications 40 (2023): 101610.

[192] P. Barpanda, S. Nishimura, and A. Yamada, “High-Voltage Pyrophosphate Cathodes,” Advanced Energy Materials 2, no. 7 (2012): 841-859.

[193] P. Barpanda, G. Liu, C. D. Ling, et al., “Na₂FeP₂O₇: A Safe Cathode for Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Chemistry of Materials 25, no. 17 (2013): 3480-3487.

[194] Y. Jia, Y. Wu, L. Li, L. Song, and J. Gao, “Monoclinic Na₂VOP₂O₇: A 4V-class Cost-Effective Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” Materials Today Physics 33 (2023): 101038.

[195] H. Li, M. Xu, Z. Zhang, Y. Lai, and J. Ma, “Engineering of Polyanion Type Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Toward Higher Energy/Power Density,” Advanced Functional Materials 30, no. 28 (2020): 2000473.

[196] Y. Kee, N. Dimov, A. Staikov, et al., “Insight into the Limited Electrochemical Activity of NaVP₂O₇,” RSC Advances 5, no. 80 (2015): 64991-64996.

[197] O. A. Drozhzhin, I. V. Tertov, A. M. Alekseeva, et al., “β-NaVP₂O₇ as a Superior Electrode Material for Na-Ion Batteries,” Chemistry of Materials 31, no. 18 (2019): 7463-7469.

[198] P. Barpanda, G. Liu, M. Avdeev, and A. Yamada, “t-Na₂(VO)P₂O₇: A 3.8 V Pyrophosphate Insertion Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ChemElectroChem 1, no. 9 (2014): 1488-1491.

[199] V. M. Kovrugin, J.-N. Chotard, F. Fauth, A. Jamali, R. David, and C. Masquelier, “Structural and Electrochemical Studies of Novel Na₇V₃Al(P₂O₇)₄(PO₄) and Na₇V₂Al₂(P₂O₇)₄(PO₄) High-Voltage Cathode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 27 (2017): 14365-14376.

[200] M. Vellaisamy, M. V. Reddy, B. V. R. Chowdari, and N. Kalaiselvi, “Exploration of AVP₂O₇/C (A = Li, Li_0.5Na_0.5, and Na) for High-Rate Sodium-Ion Battery Applications,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 122, no. 43 (2018): 24609-24618.

[201] A. Daidouh, M. L. Veiga, and C. Pico, “New Polymorphs of A₂VP₂O₈ (A = Na, Rb):: Structure Determination and Ionic Conductivity,” Solid State Ionics 106, no. 1-2 (1998): 103-112.

[202] Q. Li, B. Lin, S. Zhang, and C. Deng, “Towards High Potential and Ultra Long-Life Cathodes for Sodium Ion Batteries: Freestanding 3D Hybrid Foams of Na₇V₄(P₂O₇)₄(PO₄) and Na₇V₃(P₂O₇)₄@Biomass-Derived Porous Carbon,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 4, no. 15 (2016): 5719-5729.

[203] V. M. Kovrugin, J.-N. Chotard, F. Fauth, and C. Masquelier, “Na₇V₃(P₂O₇)₄ as a High Voltage Electrode Material for Na-Ion Batteries: Crystal Structure and Mechanism of Na⁺ Extraction/Insertion by Operando X-Ray Diffraction,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 40 (2020): 21110-21121.

[204] N. V. Kosova and V. A. Belotserkovsky, “Sodium and Mixed Sodium/Lithium Iron Ortho-Pyrophosphates: Synthesis, Structure and Electrochemical Properties,” Electrochimica Acta 278 (2018): 182-195.

[205] S. M. Wood, C. Eames, E. Kendrick, and M. S. Islam, “Sodium Ion Diffusion and Voltage Trends in Phosphates Na₄M₃(PO₄)₂P₂O₇ (M = Fe, Mn, Co, Ni) for Possible High-Rate Cathodes,” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 119, no. 28 (2015): 15935-15941.

[206] S. Y. Lim, H. Kim, J. Chung, et al., “Role of Intermediate Phase for Stable Cycling of Na₇V₄(P₂O₇)₄PO₄ in Sodium Ion Battery,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 2 (2014): 599-604.

[207] C. Deng and S. Zhang, “1D Nanostructured Na₇V₄(P₂O₇)₄(PO₄) as High-Potential and Superior-Performance Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 6, no. 12 (2014): 9111-9117.

[208] S. Zhang, C. Deng, and Y. Meng, “Bicontinuous Hierarchical Na₇V₄(P₂O₇)₄(PO₄)/C Nanorod-Graphene Composite With Enhanced Fast Sodium and Lithium Ions Intercalation Chemistry,” Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2, no. 48 (2014): 20538-20544.

[209] J. Yang, D. Li, X. Wang, X. Zhang, J. Xu, and J. Chen, “Constructing Micro-Nano Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Architecture for Practical High-Loading Electrode Fabrication as Superior-Rate and Ultralong-Life Sodium Ion Battery Cathode,” Energy Storage Materials 24 (2020): 694-699.

[210] Z. Lv, M. Ling, H. Yi, H. Zhang, Q. Zheng, and X. Li, “Electrode Design for High-Performance Sodium-Ion Batteries: Coupling Nanorod-Assembled Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃@C Microspheres With a 3D Conductive Charge Transport Network,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 12, no. 12 (2020): 13869-13877.

[211] Y. Chen, J. Cheng, C. Wang, et al., “Simultaneous Modified Na_2.9V_1.9Zr_0.1(PO₄)₃/C@rGO as a Superior High Rate and Ultralong Lifespan Cathode for Symmetric Sodium Ion Batteries,” Chemical Engineering Journal 413 (2021): 127451.

[212] H. Xiong, G. Sun, Z. Liu, et al., “Polymer Stabilized Droplet Templating Towards Tunable Hierarchical Porosity in Single Crystalline Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃ for Enhanced Sodium-Ion Storage,” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 60, no. 18 (2021): 10334-10341.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Carbon Energy published by Wenzhou University and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.