Bioprinting vascularized skin analogs: a stepwise approach

Abstract

Bioprinting has emerged as a promising technology for fabricating vascularized skin substitutes. The availability of functional skin tissue constructs is critical for the surgical treatment of various wounds, including ulcers and burns. Integrating functional vascular networks within engineered skin constructs is indispensable for ensuring adequate nutrient perfusion and overall tissue viability. This review undertakes a comprehensive exploration of the application of 3D bioprinting for fabricating vascularized skin tissue constructs. It encompasses an examination of the printing modalities, ink formulations, and cell-sourcing strategies currently prevalent in the field. The design and formulation of suitable inks are crucial steps in the successful bioprinting of vascularized skin constructs, and various ink components such as biomaterials, cells, growth factors, and bioactive molecules are particularly considered, with a focus on their roles in promoting angiogenesis and blood vessel formation within the printed constructs.

Keywords

Bioprinting / Bioinks / Skin / Vascularization

References

[1] Ho J, Walsh C, Yue D, Dardik A, Cheema U. Current advancements and strategies in tissue engineering for wound healing: a comprehensive review. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2017; 6: 191-209. https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2016.0723.

[2] Nosrati H, Khodaei M, Alizadeh Z, Banitalebi-Dehkordi M. Cationic, anionic and neutral polysaccharides for skin tissue engineering and wound healing applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 192: 298-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.013.

[3] Yu JR, Navarro J, Coburn JC, Mahadik B, Molnar J, Holmes JH 4th. et al. Current and future perspectives on skin tissue engineering: key features of biomedical research, translational assessment, and clinical application. Adv Healthc Mater 2019; 8: e1801471. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201801471.

[4] Molnar JA. Use of Vacuum-Assisted Closure (VAC)^® and Integra^® in Reconstructive Burn Surgery, Color Atlas of Burn Reconstructive Surgery. Heidelberg: Springer Berlin, 2010. 22-5.

[5] Mujahid AM, Tarar FA, Khalid FA, Sajjad Y, Ishaque U, Tarar MN. Outcome of successful graft take of Integra and split thickness skin graft after the release of post-burn neck contracture. Professional Med J 2021; 28: 106-12. https://doi.org/10.29309/TPMJ/2021.28.01.4668.

[6] Li M, Sun L, Liu Z, Shen Z, Cao Y, Han L. et al. 3D bioprinting of heterogeneous tissue-engineered skin containing human dermal fibroblasts and keratinocytes. Biomater Sci 2023; 11: 2461-77. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2BM02092K.

[7] Mastrullo V, Cathery W, Velliou E, Madeddu P, Campagnolo P. Angiogenesis in tissue engineering: as nature intended? Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8: 188. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00188.

[8] Szklanny AA, Machour M, Redenski I, Chochola V, Goldfracht I, Kaplan B. et al. 3D bioprinting of engineered tissue flaps with hierarchical vessel networks (VesselNet) for direct host-to-implant perfusion. Adv Mater 2021; 33: e2102661. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202102661.

[9] Ewald ML, Chen YH, Lee AP, Hughes CCW. The vascular niche in next generation microphysiological systems. Lab Chip 2021; 21: 3244-62. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1LC00530H.

[10] Potente M, Makinen T. Vascular heterogeneity and specialization in development and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2017; 18: 477-94. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2017.36.

[11] Humphrey JD, Schwartz MA. Vascular mechanobiology: homeostasis, adaptation, and disease. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2021; 23: 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-092419-060810.

[12] Song HG, Rumma RT, Ozaki CK, Edelman ER, Chen CS. Vascular tissue engineering: progress, challenges, and clinical promise. Cell Stem Cell 2018; 22: 340-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2018.02.009.

[13] Patel-Hett S, D’Amore PA. Signal transduction in vasculogenesis and developmental angiogenesis. Int J Dev Biol 2011; 55: 353-63. https://doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.103213sp.

[14] Sarkar B, Nguyen PK, Gao W, Dondapati A, Siddiqui Z, Kumar VA. Angiogenic self-assembling peptide scaffolds for functional tissue regeneration. Biomacromolecules 2018; 19: 3597-611. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01137.

[15] Hashimoto T, Shibasaki F. Hypoxia-inducible factor as an angiogenic master switch. Front Pediatr 2015; 3: 33. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2015.00033.

[16] Chen L, Endler A, Shibasaki F. Hypoxia and angiogenesis: regulation of hypoxia-inducible factors via novel binding factors. Exp Mol Med 2009; 41: 849-57. https://doi.org/10.3858/emm.2009.41.12.103.

[17] Nishiguchi A, Matsusaki M, Asano Y, Shimoda H, Akashi M. Effects of angiogenic factors and 3D-microenvironments on vascularization within sandwich cultures. Biomaterials 2014; 35: 4739-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.01.079.

[18] Wang WY, Lin D, Jarman EH, Polacheck WJ, Baker BM. Functional angiogenesis requires microenvironmental cues balancing endothelial cell migration and proliferation. Lab Chip 2020; 20: 1153-66. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9LC01170F.

[19] Andrejecsk JW, Hughes CCW. Engineering perfused microvascular networks into microphysiological systems platforms. Curr Opin Biomed Eng 2018; 5: 74-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobme.2018.02.002.

[20] Chae S, Ha DH, Lee H. 3D bioprinting strategy for engineering vascularized tissue models. Int J Bioprinting 2023; 9: 748. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.748.

[21] Fleischer S, Tavakol DN, Vunjak-Novakovic G. From arteries to capillaries: approaches to engineering human vasculature. Adv Funct Mater 2020; 30: 1910811. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201910811.

[22] Datta P, Ayan B, Ozbolat IT. Bioprinting for vascular and vascularized tissue biofabrication. Acta Biomater 2017; 51: 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2017.01.035.

[23] Masri S, Maarof M, Aziz IA, Idrus R, Fauzi MB. Performance of hybrid gelatin-PVA bioinks integrated with genipin through extrusion-based 3D bioprinting: an in vitro evaluation using human dermal fibroblasts. Int J Bioprinting 2023; 9: 677. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.677.

[24] Freeman FE, Pitacco P, Van Dommelen LHA, Nulty J, Browe DC, Shin JY. et al. 3D bioprinting spatiotemporally defined patterns of growth factors to tightly control tissue regeneration. Sci Adv 2020; 6: eabb5093. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abb5093.

[25] Cidonio G, Alcala-Orozco CR, Lim KS, Glinka M, Mutreja I, Kim YH. et al. Osteogenic and angiogenic tissue formation in high fidelity nanocomposite Laponite-gelatin bioinks. Biofabrication 2019; 11: 035027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab19fd.

[26] Luo Y, Lin X, Huang P. 3D bioprinting of artificial tissues: construction of biomimetic microstructures. Macromol Biosci 2018; 18: e1800034. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201800034.

[27] Ahn M, Cho WW, Lee H, Park W, Lee SH, Back JW, et al. Engineering of uniform epidermal layers via sacrificial Gelatin bioink-assisted 3D extrusion bioprinting of skin. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12: e2301015. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202301015.

[28] Daly AC, Prendergast ME, Hughes AJ, Burdick JA. Bioprinting for the biologist. Cell 2021; 184: 18-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.12.002.

[29] Daikuara LY, Chen X, Yue Z, Skropeta D, Wood FM, Fear MW. et al. 3D bioprinting constructs to facilitate skin regeneration. Adv Funct Mater 2021; 32: 2105080. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202105080.

[30] Groll J, Burdick JA, Cho DW, Derby B, Gelinsky M, Heilshorn SC. et al. A definition of bioinks and their distinction from biomaterial inks. Biofabrication 2018; 11: 013001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aaec52.

[31] McCormack A, Highley CB, Leslie NR, Melchels FPW. 3D printing in suspension baths: keeping the promises of bioprinting afloat. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 38: 584-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2019.12.020.

[32] Nuutila K, Samandari M, Endo Y, Zhang Y, Quint J, Schmidt TA. et al. In vivo printing of growth factor-eluting adhesive scaffolds improves wound healing. Bioact Mater 2022; 8: 296-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.06.030.

[33] Sakai S, Morita T. One-step FRESH bioprinting of low-viscosity silk fibroin inks. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8: 2589-97. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00269.

[34] Mueller E, Xu F, Hoare T. FRESH bioprinting of dynamic Hydrazone-cross-linked synthetic hydrogels. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23: 4883-95. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.2c01046.

[35] Becker M, Gurian M, Schot M, Leijten J. Aqueous two-phase enabled low viscosity 3D (LoV3D) bioprinting of living matter. Adv Sci 2022; 10: 2204609. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202204609.

[36] Sakai S, Harada R, Kotani T.Freeform 3D bioprinting involving ink gelation by Cascade reaction of oxidase and peroxidase: a feasibility study using hyaluronic acid-based ink. Biomol Ther 2021; 11: 1908. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11121908.

[37] Mirdamadi E, Tashman JW, Shiwarski DJ, Palchesko RN, Feinberg AW. FRESH 3D bioprinting a full-size model of the human heart. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2020; 6: 6453-9. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c01133.

[38] Kreimendahl F, Kniebs C, Tavares Sobreiro AM, Schmitz-Rode T, Jockenhoevel S, Thiebes AL. FRESH bioprinting technology for tissue engineering-the influence of printing process and bioink composition on cell behavior and vascularization. J Appl Biomater 2021; 19: 22808000211028808. https://doi.org/10.1177/22808000211028808.

[39] Zhu K, Chen N, Liu X, Mu X, Zhang W, Wang C. et al. A general strategy for extrusion bioprinting of biomacromolecular bioinks through alginate-templated dual-stage crosslinking. Macromol Biosci 2018; 18: e1800127. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201800127.

[40] Fang Y, Guo Y, Ji M, Li B, Guo Y, Zhu J. et al. 3D printing of cell-laden microgel-based biphasic bioink with heterogeneous microenvironment for biomedical applications. Adv Funct Mater 2021; 32: 2109810. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202109810.

[41] Nie M, Nagata S, Oda H, Takeuchi S. Millimeter-thick 3D tissues constructed by densely cellularized core-shell microfluidic bioprinting. Biofabrication 2023; 15: 035010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/accd23.

[42] Wang D, Maharjan S, Kuang X, Wang Z, Mille LS, Tao M. et al. Microfluidic bioprinting of tough hydrogel-based vascular conduits for functional blood vessels. Sci Adv 2022; 8: eabq6900. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq6900.

[43] Turner PR, Murray E, McAdam CJ, McConnell MA, Cabral JD. Peptide chitosan/dextran core/shell vascularized 3D constructs for wound healing. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020; 12: 32328-39. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c07212.

[44] Serex L, Sharma K, Rizov V, Bertsch A, McKinney JD, Renaud P. Microfluidic-assisted bioprinting of tissues and organoids at high cell concentrations. Biofabrication 2021; 13: 025006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abca80.

[45] Colosi C, Shin SR, Manoharan V, Massa S, Costantini M, Barbeta A. et al. Microfluidic bioprinting of heterogeneous 3D tissue constructs using low-viscosity bioink. Adv Mater 2016; 28: 677-84. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201503310.

[46] Ma Z, He H, Deng C, Ren Y, Lu D, Li W. et al. 3D bioprinting of proangiogenic constructs with induced immunomodulatory microenvironments through a dual cross-linking procedure using laponite incorporated bioink. Compos B Eng 2022; 229: 109399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109399.

[47] Shao L, Gao Q, Xie C, Fu J, Xiang M, He Y. Directly coaxial 3D bioprinting of large-scale vascularized tissue constructs. Biofabrication 2020; 12: 035014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab7e76.

[48] Gudapati H, Dey M, Ozbolat I. A comprehensive review on droplet-based bioprinting: past, present and future. Biomaterials 2016; 102: 20-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.06.012.

[49] Albanna M, Binder KW, Murphy SV, Kim J, Qasem SA, Zhao W. et al. In situ bioprinting of autologous skin cells accelerates wound healing of extensive excisional full-thickness wounds. Sci Rep 2019; 9: 1856. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-38366-w.

[50] Murphy SV, Atala A. 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat Biotechnol 2014; 32: 773-85. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.2958.

[51] Valente F, Hepburn MS, Chen J, Aldana AA, Allardyce BJ, Shafei S. et al. Bioprinting silk fibroin using two-photon lithography enables control over the physico-chemical material properties and cellular response. Bioprinting 2022; 25: e00183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2021.e00183.

[52] Choi KY, Ajiteru O, Hong H, Suh YJ, Sultan MT, Lee H. et al. A digital light processing 3D-printed artificial skin model and full-thickness wound models using silk fibroin bioink. Acta Biomater 2023; 164: 159-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.04.034.

[53] Duong VT, Lin CC. Digital light processing 3D bioprinting of Gelatin-Norbornene hydrogel for enhanced vascularization. Macromol Biosci 2023; 23: 2300213. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.202300213.

[54] Zhang Y, Kumar P, Lv S, Xiong D, Zhao H, Cai Z. et al. Recent advances in 3D bioprinting of vascularized tissues. Mater Des 2021; 199: 109398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109398.

[55] Zhu W, Qu X, Zhu J, Ma X, Patel S, Liu J. et al. Direct 3D bioprinting of prevascularized tissue constructs with complex microarchitecture. Biomaterials 2017; 124: 106-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.01.042.

[56] Li W, Wang M, Ma H, Chapa-Villarreal FA, Lobo AO, Zhang YS. Stereolithography apparatus and digital light processing-based 3D bioprinting for tissue fabrication. iScience 2023; 26: 106039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106039.

[57] Zhou F, Hong Y, Liang R, Zhang X, Liao Y, Jiang D. et al. Rapid printing of bio-inspired 3D tissue constructs for skin regeneration. Biomaterials 2020; 258: 120287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120287.

[58] Bernal PN, Delrot P, Loterie D, Li Y, Malda J, Moser C. et al. Volumetric bioprinting of complex living-tissue constructs within seconds. Adv Mater 2019; 31: e1904209. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201904209.

[59] Bhattacharya I, Toombs J, Taylor H. High fidelity volumetric additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 2021; 47: 102299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102299.

[60] Grossbacher G, Bartolf-Kopp M, Gergely C, Bernal PN, Florczak S, de Ruijter M. et al. Volumetric printing across melt electrowritten scaffolds fabricates multi-material living constructs with tunable architecture and mechanics. Adv Mater 2023; 35: e2300756. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300756.

[61] Rizzo R, Ruetsche D, Liu H, Zenobi-Wong M. Optimized photoclick (bio)resins for fast volumetric bioprinting.Adv Mater 2021; 33: e2102900. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202102900.

[62] Gehlen J, Qiu W, Schadli GN, Muller R, Qin XH. Tomographic volumetric bioprinting of heterocellular bone-like tissues in seconds. Acta Biomater 2023; 156: 49-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.06.020.

[63] Raees S, Ullah F, Javed F, Akil HM, Jadoon Khan M, Safdar M. et al. Classification, processing, and applications of bioink and 3D bioprinting: a detailed review. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 232: 123476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123476.

[64] Vrana NE, Gupta S, Mitra K, Rizvanov AA, Solovyeva VV, Antmen E. et al. From 3D printing to 3D bioprinting: the material properties of polymeric material and its derived bioink for achieving tissue specific architectures. Cell Tissue Bank 2022; 23: 417-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10561-021-09975-z.

[65] Zheng Z, Wu J, Liu M, Wang H, Li C, Rodriguez MJ, et al. 3D bioprinting of self-standing silk-based bioink. Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7: 1701026. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201701026.

[66] Benwood C, Chrenek J, Kirsch RL, Masri NZ, Richards H, Teetzen K. et al. Natural biomaterials and their use as bioinks for printing tissues. Bioengineering 2021; 8: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering8020027.

[67] Aderibigbe BA, Buyana B. Alginate in wound dressings. Pharma 2018; 10: 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics10020042.

[68] Solovieva EV, Fedotov AY, Mamonov VE, Komlev VS, Panteleyev AA. Fibrinogen-modified sodium alginate as a scaffold material for skin tissue engineering. Biomed Mater 2018; 13: 025007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/aa9089.

[69] Rastogi P, Kandasubramanian B. Review of alginate-based hydrogel bioprinting for application in tissue engineering. Biofabrication 2019; 11: 042001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab331e.

[70] Liu P, Shen H, Zhi Y, Si J, Shi J, Guo L. et al. 3D bioprinting and in vitro study of bilayered membranous construct with human cells-laden alginate/gelatin composite hydrogels. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 181: 1026-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.06.069.

[71] Jiao T, Lian Q, Lian W, Wang Y, Li D, Reis RL. et al. Properties of collagen/sodium alginate hydrogels for bioprinting of skin models. J Bionic Eng 2022; 20: 105-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42235-022-00251-8.

[72] Krishna DV, Sankar MR. Extrusion based bioprinting of alginate based multicomponent hydrogels for tissue regeneration applications: state of the art. Mater Today Commun 2023; 35: 105696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.105696.

[73] Hao L, Zhao S, Hao S, He Y, Feng M, Zhou K. et al. Functionalized gelatin-alginate based bioink with enhanced manufacturability and biomimicry for accelerating wound healing. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 240: 124364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124364.

[74] Zhou Y, Fan Y, Chen Z, Yue Z, Wallace G. Catechol functionalized ink system and thrombin-free fibrin gel for fabricating cellular constructs with mechanical support and inner micro channels. Biofabrication 2021; 14: 015004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ac2ef8.

[75] Zhao C, Latif A, Williams KJ, Tirella A. The characterization of molecular weight distribution and aggregation by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation of unmodified and oxidized alginate. React Funct Polym 2022; 175: 105292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105292.

[76] Duan Y, Li X, Zuo X, Shen T, Yu S, Deng L. et al. Migration of endothelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells into hyaluronic acid hydrogels with different moduli under induction of pro-inflammatory macrophages. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7: 5478-89. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TB01126A.

[77] Sekar MP, Suresh S, Zennifer A, Sethuraman S, Sundaramurthi D. Hyaluronic acid as bioink and hydrogel scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9: 3134-59. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c00299.

[78] Moro A, Samanta S, Honkamaki L, Rangasami VK, Puistola P, Kauppila M. et al. Hyaluronic acid based next generation bioink for 3D bioprinting of human stem cell derived corneal stromal model with innervation. Biofabrication 2022; 15: 015020. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/acab34.

[79] Thanh TN, Laowattanatham N, Ratanavaraporn J, Sereemaspun A, Yodmuang S. Hyaluronic acid crosslinked with alginate hydrogel: a versatile and biocompatible bioink platform for tissue engineering. Eur Polym J 2022; 166: 111027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111027.

[80] Hauptstein J, Forster L, Nadernezhad A, Horder H, Stahlhut P, Groll J. et al. Bioink platform utilizing dual-stage crosslinking of hyaluronic acid tailored for chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells. Macromol Biosci 2022; 22: e2100331. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.202100331.

[81] Lee SJ, Seok JM, Lee JH, Lee J, Kim WD, Park SA. Three-dimensional printable hydrogel using a hyaluronic acid/sodium alginate bio-ink. Polym 2021; 13: 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050794.

[82] Hossain Rakin R, Kumar H, Rajeev A, Natale G, Menard F, Li ITS. et al. Tunable metacrylated hyaluronic acid-based hybrid bioinks for stereolithography 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication 2021; 13: 044109. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ac25cb.

[83] Hauptstein J, Bock T, Bartolf-Kopp M, Forster L, Stahlhut P, Nadernezhad A. et al. Hyaluronic acid-based bioink composition enabling 3D bioprinting and improving quality of deposited cartilaginous extracellular matrix. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9: e2000737. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202000737.

[84] Noh I, Kim N, Tran HN, Lee J, Lee C. 3D printable hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel for its potential application as a bioink in tissue engineering. Biomater Res 2019; 23: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-018-0152-8.

[85] Petta D, D’Amora U, Ambrosio L, Grijpma DW, Eglin D, D’Este M. Hyaluronic acid as a bioink for extrusion-based 3D printing. Biofabrication 2020; 12: 032001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab8752.

[86] Bavaresco B, Comín R, Salvatierra NA, Cid MP. Three-dimensional printing of collagen and hyaluronic acid scaffolds with dehydrothermal treatment crosslinking. Compos Commun 2020; 19: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2020.02.001.

[87] Huang B, Hu D, Dong A, Tian J, Zhang W. Highly antibacterial and adhesive hyaluronic acid hydrogel for wound repair. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23: 4766-77. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00950.

[88] Lameirinhas NS, Teixeira MC, Carvalho JPF, Valente BFA, Pinto RJB, Oliveira H. et al. Nanofibrillated cellulose/gellan gum hydrogel-based bioinks for 3D bioprinting of skin cells. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 229: 849-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.227.

[89] Gering C, Parraga J, Vuorenpaa H, Botero L, Miettinen S, Kellomaki M. Bioactivated gellan gum hydrogels affect cellular rearrangement and cell response in vascular co-culture and subcutaneous implant models. Biomater Adv 2022; 143: 213185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.213185.

[90] Griffanti G, Rezabeigi E, Li J, Murshed M, Nazhat SN. Rapid biofabrication of printable dense collagen bioinks of Tunable properties. Adv Funct Mater 2019; 30: 1903874. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201903874.

[91] Diamantides N, Dugopolski C, Blahut E, Kennedy S, Bonassar LJ. High density cell seeding affects the rheology and printability of collagen bioinks. Biofabrication 2019; 11: 045016. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab3524.

[92] Diamantides N, Wang L, Pruiksma T, Siemiatkoski J, Dugopolski C, Shortkroff S. et al. Correlating rheological properties and printability of collagen bioinks: the effects of riboflavin photocrosslinking and pH. Biofabrication 2017; 9: 034102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aa780f.

[93] Kim YB, Lee H, Kim GH. Strategy to achieve highly porous/biocompatible macroscale cell blocks, using a collagen/Genipin-bioink and an optimal 3D printing process. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2016; 8: 32230-40. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b11669.

[94] Wu Z, Liu J, Lin J, Lu L, Tian J, Li L. et al. Novel digital light processing printing strategy using a collagen-based bioink with prospective cross-linker Procyanidins. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23: 240-52. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01244.

[95] Kajave NS, Schmitt T, Nguyen TU, Kishore V. Dual crosslinking strategy to generate mechanically viable cell-laden printable constructs using methacrylated collagen bioinks. Mater Sci Eng C 2020; 107: 110290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110290.

[96] Guo K, Wang H, Li S, Zhang H, Li S, Zhu H. et al. Collagen-based thiol-norbornene photoclick bio-ink with excellent bioactivity and printability. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2021; 13: 7037-50. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c16714.

[97] Kang MS, Kwon M, Lee SY, Lee SH, Jo HJ, Kim B. et al. In situ crosslinkable collagen-based hydrogels for 3D printing of dermis-mimetic constructs. ECS J Solid State Sci Technol 2022; 11: 045014. https://doi.org/10.1149/2162-8777/ac6897.

[98] Yang Y, Xu R, Wang C, Guo Y, Sun W, Ouyang L. Recombinant human collagen-based bioinks for the 3D bioprinting of full-thickness human skin equivalent. Int J Bioprinting 2022; 8: 611. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.v8i4.611.

[99] Liu W, Heinrich MA, Zhou Y, Akpek A, Hu N, Liu X. et al. Extrusion bioprinting of shear-thinning Gelatin Methacryloyl bioinks. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6: 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201601451.

[100] Ma Y, Wang Y, Chen D, Su T, Chang Q, Huang W. et al. 3D bioprinting of a gradient stiffened gelatin-alginate hydrogel with adipose-derived stem cells for full-thickness skin regeneration. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11: 2989-3000. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2TB02200A.

[101] Lee BH, Lum N, Seow LY, Lim PQ, Tan LP. Synthesis and characterization of types a and B gelatin methacryloyl for bioink applications. Materials 2016; 9: 797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9100797.

[102] Wen Q, Mithieux SM, Weiss AS. Elastin biomaterials in dermal repair. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 38: 280-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2019.08.005.

[103] Wang Y, Mithieux SM, Kong Y, Wang XQ, Chong C, Fathi A. et al. Tropoelastin incorporation into a dermal regeneration template promotes wound angiogenesis. Adv Healthc Mater 2015; 4: 577-84. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201400571.

[104] Lee S, Sani ES, Spencer AR, Guan Y, Weiss AS, Annabi N. Human-recombinant-elastin-based bioinks for 3D bioprinting of vascularized soft tissues. Adv Mater 2020; 32: e2003915. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202003915.

[105] Asim S, Tabish TA, Liaqat U, Ozbolat IT, Rizwan M. Advances in gelatin bioinks to optimize bioprinted cell functions. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12: e2203148. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202203148.

[106] Xie M, Lian L, Mu X, Luo Z, Garciamendez-Mijares CE, Zhang Z. et al. Volumetric additive manufacturing of pristine silk-based (bio)inks. Nat Commun 2023; 14: 210. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-35807-7.

[107] Bari E, Di Gravina GM, Scocozza F, Perteghella S, Frongia B, Tengattini S. et al. Silk fibroin bioink for 3D printing in tissue regeneration: controlled release of MSC extracellular vesicles. Pharm 2023; 15: 383. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020383.

[108] Yang J, Li Z, Li S, Zhang Q, Zhou X, He C. Tunable metacrylated silk fibroin-based hybrid bioinks for the bioprinting of tissue engineering scaffolds. Biomater Sci 2023; 11: 1895-909. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2BM01978G.

[109] Yao X, Zou S, Fan S, Niu Q, Zhang Y. Bioinspired silk fibroin materials: from silk building blocks extraction and reconstruction to advanced biomedical applications. Mater Today Bio 2022; 16: 100381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100381.

[110] de Melo BAG, Jodat YA, Cruz EM, Benincasa JC, Shin SR, Porcionatto MA. Strategies to use fibrinogen as bioink for 3D bioprinting fibrin-based soft and hard tissues. Acta Biomater 2020; 117: 60-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.09.024.

[111] Hinton TJ, Jallerat Q, Palchesko RN, Park JH, Grodzicki MS, Shue H. et al. Three-dimensional printing of complex biological structures by freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels. Sci Adv 2015; 1: e1500758. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500758.

[112] Li S, Dan X, Chen H, Li T, Liu B, Ju Y. et al. Developing fibrin-based biomaterials/scaffolds in tissue engineering. Bioact Mater 2024; 40: 597-623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.08.006.

[113] Kolesky DB, Homan KA, Skylar-Scott MA, Lewis JA. Three-dimensional bioprinting of thick vascularized tissues. PNAS 2016; 113: 3179-84. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1521342113.

[114] Pourchet LJ, Thepot A, Albouy M, Courtial EJ, Boher A, Blum LJ. et al. Human skin 3D bioprinting using scaffold-free approach. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6: 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201601101.

[115] Cavallo A, Al Kayal T, Mero A, Mezzetta A, Guazzelli L, Soldani G. et al. Fibrinogen-based bioink for application in skin equivalent 3D bioprinting. J Funct Biomater 2023; 14: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb14090459.

[116] Wang Y, Huang X, Shen Y, Hang R, Zhang X, Wang Y. et al. Direct writing alginate bioink inside pre-polymers of hydrogels to create patterned vascular networks. J Mater Sci 2019; 54: 7883-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03447-2.

[117] Mirdamadi E, Muselimyan N, Koti P, Asfour H, Sarvazyan N. Agarose slurry as a support medium for bioprinting and culturing freestanding cell-laden hydrogel constructs. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2019; 6: 158-64.

[118] Dravid A, McCaughey-Chapman A, Raos B, O’Carroll SJ, Connor B, Svirskis D. Development of agarose-gelatin bioinks for extrusion-based bioprinting and cell encapsulation. Biomed Mater 2022; 17: 055001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/ac759f.

[119] Ren B, Song K, Chen Y, Murfee WL, Huang Y. Laponite nanoclay-modified sacrificial composite ink for perfusable channel creation via embedded 3D printing. Compos B Eng 2023; 263: 110851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2023.110851.

[120] Ramasamy S, Davoodi P, Vijayavenkataraman S, Teoh JH, Thamizhchelvan AM, Robinson KS. et al. Optimized construction of a full thickness human skin equivalent using 3D bioprinting and a PCL/collagen dermal scaffold. Bioprinting 2021; 21: e00123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2020.e00123.

[121] Kim BS, Lee JS, Gao G, Cho DW. Direct 3D cell-printing of human skin with functional transwell system. Biofabrication 2017; 9: 025034. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aa71c8.

[122] Xu Y, Hu Y, Liu C, Yao H, Liu B, Mi S. A novel strategy for creating tissue-engineered biomimetic blood vessels using 3D bioprinting technology. Materials 2018; 11: 1581. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091581.

[123] Suntornnond R, Tan EYS, An J, Chua CK. A highly printable and biocompatible hydrogel composite for direct printing of soft and perfusable vasculature-like structures. Sci Rep 2017; 7: 16902. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17198-0.

[124] Glover K, Mathew E, Pitzanti G, Magee E, Lamprou DA. 3D bioprinted scaffolds for diabetic wound-healing applications. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13: 2096-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-022-01115-8.

[125] Muir VG, Burdick JA. Chemically modified biopolymers for the formation of biomedical hydrogels. Chem Rev 2021; 121: 10908-49. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00923.

[126] Ghavami Nejad A, Ashammakhi N, Wu XY, Khademhosseini A. Crosslinking strategies for 3D bioprinting of polymeric hydrogels. Small 2020; 16: e2002931. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202002931.

[127] Hao L, Tao X, Feng M, Zhou K, He Y, Yang J. et al. Stepwise multi-cross-linking bioink for 3D embedded bioprinting to promote full-thickness wound healing. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2023; 15: 24034-46. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c00688.

[128] Xu L, Zhang Z, Jorgensen AM, Yang Y, Jin Q, Zhang G. et al. Bioprinting a skin patch with dual-crosslinked gelatin (GelMA) and silk fibroin (SilMA): an approach to accelerating cutaneous wound healing. Mater Today Bio 2023; 18: 100550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100550.

[129] Thomas A, Orellano I, Lam T, Noichl B, Geiger MA, Amler AK. et al. Vascular bioprinting with enzymatically degradable bioinks via multi-material projection-based stereolithography. Acta Biomater 2020; 117: 121-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.09.033.

[130] Soliman BG, Major GS, Atienza-Roca P, Murphy CA, Longoni A, Alcala-Orozco CR. et al. Development and characterization of gelatin-norbornene bioink to understand the interplay between physical architecture and micro-capillary formation in biofabricated vascularized constructs. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11: e2101873. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.202101873.

[131] Sanaei K, Zamanian A, Mashayekhan S, Ramezani T. Formulation and characterization of a novel oxidized alginate-gelatin-silk fibroin bioink with the aim of skin regeneration. Iran Biomed J 2023; 27: 280-93. https://doi.org/10.61186/ibj.27.5.280.

[132] Kang MS, Kwon M, Lee SH, Kim WH, Lee GW, Jo HJ. et al. 3D printing of skin equivalents with hair follicle structures and epidermal-papillary-dermal layers using gelatin/hyaluronic acid hydrogels. Chem Asian J 2022; 17: e202200620. https://doi.org/10.1002/asia.202200620.

[133] Guan G, Qizhuang L, Liu S, Jiang Z, Zhou C, Liao W. 3D-bioprinted peptide coupling patches for wound healing. Mater Today Bio 2022; 13: 100188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100188.

[134] Kim SH, Yeon YK, Lee JM, Chao JR, Lee YJ, Seo YB. et al. Precisely printable and biocompatible silk fibroin bioink for digital light processing 3D printing. Nat Commun 2018; 9: 1620. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03759-y.

[135] Amirian J, Wychowaniec JK, Amel Zendehdel E, Sharma G, Brangule A, Bandere D. Versatile potential of photo-cross-linkable silk fibroin: roadmap from chemical processing toward regenerative medicine and biofabrication applications. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24: 2957-81. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00098.

[136] Annabi N, Mithieux SM, Zorlutuna P, Camci-Unal G, Weiss AS, Khademhosseini A. Engineered cell-laden human protein-based elastomer. Biomaterials 2013; 34: 5496-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.03.076.

[137] Mishbak HH, Cooper G, Bartolo PJ. Development and characterization of a photocurable alginate bioink for three-dimensional bioprinting. Int J Bioprinting 2019; 5: 189. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.v5i2.189.

[138] Partlow BP, Applegate MB, Omenetto FG, Kaplan DL. Dityrosine cross-linking in designing biomaterials. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2016; 2: 2108-21. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00454.

[139] Palladino S, Schwab A, Copes F, D’Este M, Candiani G, Mantovani D. Development of a hyaluronic acid-collagen bioink for shear-induced fibers and cells alignment. Biomed Mater 2023; 18: 065017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/acfd77.

[140] Lee J, Lee SH, Kim BS, Cho YS, Park Y. Development and evaluation of hyaluronic acid-based hybrid bio-ink for tissue regeneration. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 15: 761-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13770-018-0144-8.

[141] Lee S, Choi G, Yang YJ, Joo KI, Cha HJ. Visible light-crosslinkable tyramine-conjugated alginate-based microgel bioink for multiple cell-laden 3D artificial organ. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 313: 120895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.120895.

[142] Hong S, Kim JS, Jung B, Won C, Hwang C. Coaxial bioprinting of cell-laden vascular constructs using a gelatin-tyramine bioink. Biomater Sci 2019; 7: 4578-87. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8BM00618K.

[143] Perin F, Mota C, Mancini I, Motta A, Maniglio D. Photoenzymatic dityrosine crosslinking for bioprinting. Polym 2022; 252: 124941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2022.124941.

[144] Petta D, Grijpma DW, Alini M, Eglin D, D’Este M. Three-dimensional printing of a tyramine hyaluronan derivative with double gelation mechanism for independent tuning of shear thinning and postprinting curing. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2018; 4: 3088-98. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00416.

[145] Lee S, Lee SM, Lee SH, Choi WK, Park SJ, Kim DY. et al. In situ photo-crosslinkable hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel embedded with GHK peptide nanofibers for bioactive wound healing. Acta Biomater 2023; 172: 159-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.10.011.

[146] Lee YB, Lim S, Lee Y, Park CH, Lee HJ. Green chemistry for crosslinking biopolymers: recent advances in riboflavin-mediated photochemistry.Materials 2023; 16: 1218. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031218.

[147] Petta D, Armiento AR, Grijpma D, Alini M, Eglin D, D’Este M. 3D bioprinting of a hyaluronan bioink through enzymatic-and visible light-crosslinking. Biofabrication 2018; 10: 044104. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aadf58.

[148] Ji S, Abaci A, Morrison T, Gramlich WM, Guvendiren M. Novel bioinks from UV-responsive norbornene-functionalized carboxymethyl cellulose macromers. Bioprinting 2020; 18: e00083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2020.e00083.

[149] Levato R, Lim KS, Li W, Asua AU, Pena LB, Wang M. et al. High-resolution lithographic biofabrication of hydrogels with complex microchannels from low-temperature-soluble gelatin bioresins. Mater Today Bio 2021; 12: 100162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100162.

[150] Dobos A, Van Hoorick J, Steiger W, Gruber P, Markovic M, Andriotis OG. et al. Thiol-gelatin-norbornene bioink for laser-based high-definition bioprinting. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9: e1900752. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201900752.

[151] Kim MH, Lin CC. Poly(ethylene glycol)-norbornene as a photoclick bioink for digital light processing 3D bioprinting. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2023; 15: 2737-46. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c20098.

[152] Distler T, Solisito AA, Schneidereit D, Friedrich O, Detsch R, Boccaccini AR. 3D printed oxidized alginate-gelatin bioink provides guidance for C2C12 muscle precursor cell orientation and differentiation via shear stress during bioprinting. Biofabrication 2020; 12: 045005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab98e4.

[153] Weis M, Shan J, Kuhlmann M, Jungst T, Tessmar J, Groll J. Evaluation of hydrogels based on oxidized hyaluronic acid for bioprinting. Gels 2018; 4: 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4040082.

[154] Reakasame S, Dranseikiene D, Schrufer S, Zheng K, Schubert DW, Boccaccini AR. Development of alginate dialdehyde-gelatin based bioink with methylcellulose for improving printability. Mater Sci Eng C 2021; 128: 112336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112336.

[155] Guo Y, Wang X, Li B, Shen Y, Shen L, Wu J. et al. Oxidized sodium alginate crosslinked silk fibroin composite scaffold for skin tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2022; 110: 2667-75. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.35119.

[156] Mohabatpour F, Yazdanpanah Z, Papagerakis S, Chen X, Papagerakis P. Self-crosslinkable oxidized alginate-carboxymethyl chitosan hydrogels as an injectable cell carrier for In vitro dental enamel regeneration. J Funct Biomater 2022; 13: 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb13020071.

[157] Sayed M, Pal H. An overview from simple host-guest systems to progressively complex supramolecular assemblies. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23: 26085-107. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1CP03556H.

[158] Highley CB, Rodell CB, Burdick JA. Direct 3D printing of shear-thinning hydrogels into self-healing hydrogels. Adv Mater 2015; 27: 5075-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201501234.

[159] Ren P, Wei D, Ge X, Wang F, Liang M, Dai J. et al. Injectable supramolecular hydrogels based on host-guest interactions with cell encapsulation capabilities. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2021; 628: 127338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2021.127338.

[160] Fernandes-Cunha GM, Jeong SH, Logan CM, Le P, Mundy D, Chen F. et al. Supramolecular host-guest hyaluronic acid hydrogels enhance corneal wound healing through dynamic spatiotemporal effects. Ocul Surf 2022; 23: 148-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtos.2021.09.002.

[161] Loebel C, Rodell CB, Chen MH, Burdick JA. Shear-thinning and self-healing hydrogels as injectable therapeutics and for 3D-printing. Nat Protoc 2017; 12: 1521-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2017.053.

[162] Loebel C, Ayoub A, Galarraga JH, Kossover O, Simaan-Yameen H, Seliktar D. et al. Tailoring supramolecular guest-host hydrogel viscoelasticity with covalent fibrinogen double networks. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7: 1753-60. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TB02593B.

[163] Wang Z, An G, Zhu Y, Liu X, Chen Y, Wu H. et al. 3D-printable self-healing and mechanically reinforced hydrogels with host-guest non-covalent interactions integrated into covalently linked networks. Mater Horiz 2019; 6: 733-42. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8MH01208C.

[164] Decante G, Costa JB, Silva-Correia J, Collins MN, Reis RL, Oliveira JM. Engineering bioinks for 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication 2021; 13: 032001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abec2c.

[165] Freeman FE, Kelly DJ. Tuning alginate bioink stiffness and composition for controlled growth factor delivery and to spatially direct MSC fate within bioprinted tissues. Sci Rep 2017; 7: 17042. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17286-1.

[166] Wan W, Cai F, Huang J, Chen S, Liao Q. A skin-inspired 3D bilayer scaffold enhances granulation tissue formation and anti-infection for diabetic wound healing. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7: 2954-61. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TB03341B.

[167] Bashiri Z, Rajabi Fomeshi M, Ghasemi Hamidabadi H, Jafari D, Alizadeh S, Nazm Bojnordi M. et al. 3D-printed placental-derived bioinks for skin tissue regeneration with improved angiogenesis and wound healing properties. Mater Today Bio 2023; 20: 100666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100666.

[168] Gerwins P, Sköldenberg E, Claesson-Welsh L. Function of fibroblast growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factors and their receptors in angiogenesis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2000; 34: 185-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-8428(00)00062-7.

[169] Ucuzian AA, Gassman AA, East AT, Greisler HP. Molecular mediators of angiogenesis. J Burn Care Res 2010; 31: 158-75. https://doi.org/10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181c7ed82.

[170] Jang MJ, Bae SK, Jung YS, Kim JC, Kim JS, Park SK. et al. Enhanced wound healing using a 3D printed VEGF-mimicking peptide incorporated hydrogel patch in a pig model. Biomed Mater 2021; 16: 045013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/abf1a8.

[171] Byambaa B, Annabi N, Yue K, Trujillo-de Santiago G, Alvarez MM, Jia W. et al. Bioprinted osteogenic and vasculogenic patterns for engineering 3D bone tissue. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6: 1700015. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201700015.

[172] Yang J, Deng C, Shafiq M, Li Z, Zhang Q, Du H. et al. Localized delivery of FTY-720 from 3D printed cell-laden gelatin/silk fibroin composite scaffolds for enhanced vascularized bone regeneration. Smart Mater Med 2022; 3: 217-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smaim.2022.01.007.

[173] Daikuara LY, Yue Z, Skropeta D, Wallace GG. In vitro characterisation of 3D printed platelet lysate-based bioink for potential application in skin tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2021; 123: 286-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.01.021.

[174] Hu Q, Lu R, Liu S, Liu Y, Gu Y, Zhang H. 3D printing GelMA/PVA interpenetrating polymer networks scaffolds mediated with CuO nanoparticles for angiogenesis. Macromol Biosci 2022; 22: e2200208. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.202200208.

[175] Rognoni E, Watt FM. Skin cell heterogeneity in development, wound healing, and cancer. Trends Cell Biol 2018; 28: 709-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2018.05.002.

[176] Hirobe T. Keratinocytes regulate the function of melanocytes. Dermatol Sin 2014; 32: 200-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsi.2014.05.002.

[177] Steen K, Chen D, Wang F, Majumdar R, Chen S, Kumar S. et al. A role for keratins in supporting mitochondrial organization and function in skin keratinocytes. Mol Biol Cell 2020; 31: 1103-11. https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.E19-10-0565.

[178] Tracy LE, Minasian RA, Caterson EJ. Extracellular matrix and dermal fibroblast function in the healing wound. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2016; 5: 119-36. https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2014.0561.

[179] Bui HD, Cho W, Park JK, Lee MS, Kim HK, Yoo HS. Korean amberjack skin-inspired hyaluronic acid bioink for reconstruction of human skin. ACS Omega 2023; 8: 22752-61. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c01642.

[180] Baltazar T, Merola J, Catarino C, Xie CB, Kirkiles-Smith NC, Lee V. et al. Three dimensional bioprinting of a vascularized and Perfusable skin graft using human keratinocytes, fibroblasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 26: 227-38. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2019.0201.

[181] Jorgensen AM, Varkey M, Gorkun A, Clouse C, Xu L, Chou Z, et al. . Bioprinted skin recapitulates normal collagen remodeling in full-thickness wounds. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 26: 512-26. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2019.0319.

[182] Xia Y, Prawirasatya M, Heng BC, Boey F, Venkatraman SS. Seeding density matters: extensive intercellular contact masks the surface dependence of endothelial cell-biomaterial interactions. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2011; 22: 389-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-010-4211-5.

[183] Blinder YJ, Freiman A, Raindel N, Mooney DJ, Levenberg S. Vasculogenic dynamics in 3D engineered tissue constructs. Sci Rep 2015; 5: 17840. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17840.

[184] Wang K, Lin RZ, Melero-Martin JM. Bioengineering human vascular networks: trends and directions in endothelial and perivascular cell sources. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76: 421-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-018-2939-0.

[185] Barros NR, Kim HJ, Gouidie MJ, Lee K, Bandaru P, Banton EA. et al. Biofabrication of endothelial cell, dermal fibroblast, and multilayered keratinocyte layers for skin tissue engineering. Biofabrication 2021; 13: 035030. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aba503.

[186] Guerreiro SG, Unger RE, Cerqueira N, Sartoris A, Martins MJ, Barbosa MA. et al. Alkaline phosphatase dual-binding sites for collagen dictate cell migration and microvessel assembly in vitro. J Cell Biochem 2021; 122: 116-29. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.29835.

[187] Masson-Meyers DS, Tayebi L. Vascularization strategies in tissue engineering approaches for soft tissue repair. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2021; 15: 747-62. https://doi.org/10.1002/term.3225.

[188] Wang J, Cui Z, Maniruzzaman M. Bioprinting: a focus on improving bioink printability and cell performance based on different process parameters. Int J Pharm 2023; 640: 123020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123020.

[189] Naghieh S, Chen X. Printability-a key issue in extrusion-based bioprinting. J Pharm Anal 2021; 11: 564-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpha.2021.02.001.

[190] Garcia-Cruz MR, Postma A, Frith JE, Meagher L. Printability and bio-functionality of a shear thinning methacrylated xanthan-gelatin composite bioink. Biofabrication 2021; 13: 035023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abec2d.

[191] Martorana A, Pitarresi G, Palumbo FS, Barberi G, Fiorica C, Giammona G. Correlating rheological properties of a Gellan gum-based bioink: a study of the impact of cell density. Polym 2022; 14: 1844. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091844.

[192] Majumder N, Mishra A, Ghosh S. Effect of varying cell densities on the rheological properties of the bioink. Bioprinting 2022; 28: e00241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2022.e00241.

[193] Mouser VH, Melchels FP, Visser J, Dhert WJ, Gawlitta D, Malda J. Yield stress determines bioprintability of hydrogels based on gelatin-methacryloyl and gellan gum for cartilage bioprinting. Biofabrication 2016; 8: 035003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/3/035003.

[194] Law N, Doney B, Glover H, Qin Y, Aman ZM, Sercombe TB. et al. Characterisation of hyaluronic acid methylcellulose hydrogels for 3D bioprinting. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2018; 77: 389-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2017.09.031.

[195] Aldana AA, Valente F, Dilley R, Doyle B. Development of 3D bioprinted GelMA-alginate hydrogels with tunable mechanical properties. Bioprinting 2021; 21: e00105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2020.e00105.

[196] Gao T, Gillispie GJ, Copus JS, Pr AK, Seol YJ, Atala A. et al. Optimization of gelatin-alginate composite bioink printability using rheological parameters: a systematic approach. Biofabrication 2018; 10: 034106. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aacdc7.

[197] Perin F, Spessot E, Fama A, Bucciarelli A, Callone E, Mota C. et al. Modeling a dynamic printability window on polysaccharide blend inks for extrusion bioprinting. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9: 1320-31. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c01143.

[198] Clark CC, Aleman J, Mutkus L, Skardal A. A mechanically robust thixotropic collagen and hyaluronic acid bioink supplemented with gelatin nanoparticles. Bioprinting 2019; 16: e00058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2019.e00058.

[199] Gonzalez-Fernandez T, Tenorio AJ, Campbell KT, Silva EA, Leach JK. Alginate-based bioinks for 3D bioprinting and fabrication of anatomically accurate bone grafts. Tissue Eng Part A 2021; 27: 1168-81. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0305.

[200] Chand R, Muhire BS, Vijayavenkataraman S. Computational fluid dynamics assessment of the effect of bioprinting parameters in extrusion bioprinting. Int J Bioprinting 2022; 8: 545. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.v8i2.545.

[201] Lorson T, Ruopp M, Nadernezhad A, Eiber J, Vogel U, Jungst T. et al. Sterilization methods and their influence on physicochemical properties and bioprinting of alginate as a bioink component. ACS Omega 2020; 5: 6481-6. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b04096.

[202] Ouyang L, Yao R, Zhao Y, Sun W. Effect of bioink properties on printability and cell viability for 3D bioplotting of embryonic stem cells. Biofabrication 2016; 8: 035020. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/3/035020.

[203] Daly AC, Critchley SE, Rencsok EM, Kelly DJ.A comparison of different bioinks for 3D bioprinting of fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage. Biofabrication 2016; 8: 045002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/8/4/045002.

[204] Ribeiro A, Blokzijl MM, Levato R, Visser CW, Castilho M, Hennink WE. et al. Assessing bioink shape fidelity to aid material development in 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication 2017; 10: 014102. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aa90e2.

[205] Malekpour A, Chen X. Printability and cell viability in extrusion-based bioprinting from experimental, computational, and machine learning views. J Funct Biomater 2022; 13: 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb13020040.

[206] Bonatti AF, Chiesa I, Vozzi G, De Maria C. Open-source CAD-CAM simulator of the extrusion-based bioprinting process. Bioprinting 2021; 24: e00172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2021.e00172.

[207] Li H, Dai J, Wang Z, Zheng H, Li W, Wang M. et al. Digital light processing (DLP)-based (bio)printing strategies for tissue modeling and regeneration. Aggregate 2022; 4: e270. https://doi.org/10.1002/agt2.270.

[208] Kim D, Kang D, Kim D, Jang J. Volumetric bioprinting strategies for creating large-scale tissues and organs. MRS Bull 2023; 48: 657-67. https://doi.org/10.1557/s43577-023-00541-4.

[209] Lim KS, Levato R, Costa PF, Castilho MD, Alcala-Orozco CR, van Dorenmalen KMA. et al. Bio-resin for high resolution lithography-based biofabrication of complex cell-laden constructs. Biofabrication 2018; 10: 034101. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/aac00c.

[210] Na K, Shin S, Lee H, Shin D, Baek J, Kwak H. et al. Effect of solution viscosity on retardation of cell sedimentation in DLP 3D printing of gelatin methacrylate/silk fibroin bioink. J Ind Eng Chem 2018; 61: 340-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2017.12.032.

[211] He N, Wang X, Shi L, Li J, Mo L, Chen F. et al. Photoinhibiting via simultaneous photoabsorption and free-radical reaction for high-fidelity light-based bioprinting. Nat Commun 2023; 14: 3063. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38838-2.

[212] Guan J, You S, Xiang Y, Schimelman J, Alido J, Ma X. et al. Compensating the cell-induced light scattering effect in light-based bioprinting using deep learning. Biofabrication 2021; 14: 015011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ac3b92.

[213] Jin R, Cui Y, Chen H, Zhang Z, Weng T, Xia S. et al. Three-dimensional bioprinting of a full-thickness functional skin model using acellular dermal matrix and gelatin methacrylamide bioink. Acta Biomater 2021; 131: 248-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.07.012.

[214] Ramakrishnan R, Kasoju N, Raju R, Geevarghese R, Gauthaman A, Bhatt A. Exploring the potential of alginate-gelatin-diethylaminoethyl cellulose-fibrinogen based bioink for 3D bioprinting of skin tissue constructs. Carbohydr Polym Tech Appl 2022; 3: 100184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2022.100184.

[215] Somasekharan LT, Raju R, Kumar S, Geevarghese R, Nair RP, Kasoju N. et al. Biofabrication of skin tissue constructs using alginate, gelatin and diethylaminoethyl cellulose bioink. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 189: 398-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.08.114.

[216] Acosta FM, Stojkova K, Brey EM, Rathbone CR. A straightforward approach to engineer vascularized adipose tissue using microvascular fragments. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 26: 905-14. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2019.0345.

[217] Laschke MW, Spater T, Menger MD. Microvascular fragments: more than just natural vascularization units. Trends Biotechnol 2021; 39: 24-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.06.001.

[218] Zhang Z, Xu C, Xu L, Wan J, Cao G, Liu Z. et al. Bioprinted dermis with human adipose tissue-derived microvascular fragments promotes wound healing. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121: 1407-21. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.28588.

[219] Weng T, Wu P, Zhang W, Zheng Y, Li Q, Jin R. et al. Regeneration of skin appendages and nerves: current status and further challenges. J Transl Med 2020; 18: 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-020-02248-5.

[220] Tan MH, Xu XH, Yuan TJ, Hou X, Wang J, Jiang ZH. et al. Self-powered smart patch promotes skin nerve regeneration and sensation restoration by delivering biological-electrical signals in program. Biomaterials 2022; 283: 121413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121413.

[221] Zhang H, Wu C. 3D printing of biomaterials for vascularized and innervated tissue regeneration. Int J Bioprinting 2023; 9: 706. https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.706.

[222] O’Connell CD, Onofrillo C, Duchi S, Li X, Zhang Y, Tian P. et al. Evaluation of sterilisation methods for bio-ink components: gelatin, gelatin methacryloyl, hyaluronic acid and hyaluronic acid methacryloyl. Biofabrication 2019; 11: 035003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/ab0b7c.