50 years of scanning electron microscopy of bone—a comprehensive overview of the important discoveries made and insights gained into bone material properties in health, disease, and taphonomy

Abstract

Bone is an architecturally complex system that constantly undergoes structural and functional optimisation through renewal and repair. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is among the most frequently used instruments for examining bone. It offers the key advantage of very high spatial resolution coupled with a large depth of field and wide field of view. Interactions between incident electrons and atoms on the sample surface generate backscattered electrons, secondary electrons, and various other signals including X-rays that relay compositional and topographical information. Through selective removal or preservation of specific tissue components (organic, inorganic, cellular, vascular), their individual contribution(s) to the overall functional competence can be elucidated. With few restrictions on sample geometry and a variety of applicable sample-processing routes, a given sample may be conveniently adapted for multiple analytical methods. While a conventional SEM operates at high vacuum conditions that demand clean, dry, and electrically conductive samples, non-conductive materials (e.g., bone) can be imaged without significant modification from the natural state using an environmental scanning electron microscope. This review highlights important insights gained into bone microstructure and pathophysiology, bone response to implanted biomaterials, elemental analysis, SEM in paleoarchaeology, 3D imaging using focused ion beam techniques, correlative microscopy and in situ experiments. The capacity to image seamlessly across multiple length scales within the meso-micro-nano-continuum, the SEM lends itself to many unique and diverse applications, which attest to the versatility and user-friendly nature of this instrument for studying bone. Significant technological developments are anticipated for analysing bone using the SEM.

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Funding

Vetenskapsrådet (Swedish Research Council)(K2015-52X-09495-28-4)

Adlerbertska Stiftelserna (Adlerbertska Foundations)

IngaBritt och Arne Lundbergs Forskningsstiftelse (Ingabritt and Arne Lundberg Research Foundation)

Stiftelserna Wilhelm och Martina Lundgrens (Wilhelm and Martina Lundgren Foundation)

Stiftelsen Promobilia (Promobilia Foundation)

Stiftelsen Handlanden Hjalmar Svenssons (Hjalmar Svensson Foundation)

Osteology Foundation

Svenska Sällskapet för Medicinsk Forskning (Swedish Society for Medical Research)

ALF/LUA Research Grant (ALFGBG-448851) Dr. Felix Neubergh Foundation Stiftelsen Konrad och Helfrid Johanssons fond Materials Science Area of Advance at Chalmers and the Department of Biomaterials, University of Gothenburg