Construction and control of bio-syncretic robots actuated by living materials

Abstract

Bio-syncretic robots represent a novel class of robots that integrate biological and artificial materials. These robots combine the high energy efficiency and environmental adaptability of biological tissues with the precise control and programmability of traditional robots, making them a focal point in the field of robotics. This paper reviews the latest research progress in bio-syncretic robots. Initially, we classify and introduce bio-syncretic robots from the perspective of structural design, which incorporates both biological and artificial materials. Subsequently, we provide a detailed discussion of their fabrication techniques and control methodologies. Finally, to facilitate broader applications of bio-syncretic robots, this paper explores their potential applications and future development prospects.

Keywords

Bio-syncretic robot / Biohybrid robot / Cell actuation / Living machines

References

[1] L.C. Yang, C. Zhang, R.Q. Wang, H.S. Qin, Y.W. Zhang, W.J. Tan, J. Yang, F.F. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Biosyncretic robots actuated by living materials, Adv. Mater. Technol.-US 9 (2024).

[2] Q. Zhang, C. Zhang, L.C. Yang, H.S. Qin, Y.W. Zhang, Y. Zhao, L.Q. Liu, Biosyncretic robotic systems: Comprehensive construction, application, and future challenges, Sci. China Technol. SC 68 (2025).

[3] J.J. Wang, Y.J. Wang, Y. Kim, T.Q. Yu, R. Bashir, Multi-actuator light-controlled biological robots, Apl. Bioeng. 6 (2022).

[4] L.C. Yang, C. Zhang, R.Q. Wang, Y.W. Zhang, Q. Zhang, H.S. Qin, L.Q. Liu, Dynamic electromechanical co-stimulation based enhancement of skeletal muscle tissues for fast biosyncretic robots actuation, Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 (2025).

[5] K.Y. Lee, S.J. Park, D.G. Matthews, S.L. Kim, C.A. Marquez, J.F. Zimmerman, H. Ardoña, A.G. Kleber, G. Lauder, K.K. Parker, An autonomously swimming biohybrid fish designed with human cardiac biophysics, Science 375 (2022) 639.

[6] M. Guix, R. Mestre, T. Patiño, M. De Corato, J. Fuentes, G. Zarpellon, S. Sánchez, Biohybrid soft robots with self-stimulating skeletons, Sci. Robot 6 (2021).

[7] C. Zhang, Y.W. Zhang, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, L.Q. Liu, Research article a manta ray-inspired biosyncretic robot with stable controllability by dynamic electric stimulation, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2022 (2022).

[8] Y. Morimoto, H. Onoe, S. Takeuchi, Biohybrid robot powered by an antagonistic pair of skeletal muscle tissues, Sci. Robot 3 (2018).

[9] Y. Akiyama, T. Sakuma, K. Funakoshi, T. Hoshino, K. Iwabuchi, K. Morishima, Atmospheric-operable bioactuator powered by insect muscle packaged with medium, Lab Chip 13 (2013) 4870-4880.

[10] C. Zhang, S.X. Xie, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, Y.C. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Bio-syncretic tweezers actuated by microorganisms: modeling and analysis, Soft Matter 12 (2016) 7485-7494.

[11] C. Zhang, L.C. Yang, W.X. Wang, H.J. Fan, W.J. Tan, R.Q. Wang, F.F. Wang, N. Xi, L.Q. Liu, Steering muscle-based bio-syncretic robot through bionic optimized biped mechanical design, Soft Robot 11 (2024) 484-493.

[12] Z. Li, Y. Seo, O. Aydin, M. Elhebeary, R.D. Kamm, H. Kong, M.T.A. Saif, Biohybrid valveless pump-bot powered by engineered skeletal muscle, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 116 (2019) 1543-1548.

[13] Y. Tanaka, K. Sato, T. Shimizu, M. Yamato, T. Okano, T. Kitamori, A micro-spherical heart pump powered by cultured cardiomyocytes, Lab Chip 7 (2007) 207-212.

[14] X.K. Gao, K. Okasaki, H. Ohashi, T. Sakurai, Y. Morinzoto, Tongue-like bioactuator with multiple skeletal muscle tissues, 2025 IEEE 38th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, MEMS, IEEE, 2025, pp. 535-537.

[15] A. Bartolucci, J. Fuentes, D. Guarnera, F. Lezcano, M. Crespo-Cuadrado, L. Guachi-Guachi, F. Iacoponi, C. Salvatori, R. Collu, M. Barbaro, S. Lai, L. Ricotti, S. Sánchez, L. Vannozzi, Monolithic biohybrid flexure mechanism actuated by bioengineered skeletal muscle tissue, Adv. Intell. Syst.-Ger. (2025).

[16] M.Y. Li, L. Li, J.J. Zhou, L.Q. Liu, N.D. Jiao, Deep learning-based automatic control of magnetic diatom biohybrid microrobots for targeted delivery, IEEE T Robot 41 (2025) 2990-3003.

[17] V. Chan, H.H. Asada, R. Bashir, Utilization and control of bioactuators across multiple length scales, Lab Chip 14 (2014) 653-670.

[18] M. Shin, J. Lim, S. Kim, S. Lee, W.W. Su, J. Yoon, J.W. Choi, Human nervous system-based biohybrid robot-on-a-chip with sensing function for toxicity screening, Adv Sci, (2025).

[19] C. Zhang, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, Y.C. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Development and future challenges of bio-syncretic robots, Engineering 4 (2018) 452-463.

[20] J.Z. Xi, J.J. Schmidt, C.D. Montemagno, Self-assembled microdevices driven by muscle, Nat. Mater. 4 (2005) 180-184.

[21] Y. Tanaka, K. Morishima, T. Shimizu, A. Kikuchi, M. Yamato, T. Okano, T. Kitamori, Demonstration of a PDMS-based bio-microactuator using cultured cardiomyocytes to drive polymer micropillars, Lab Chip 6 (2006) 230-235.

[22] S.J. Park, M. Gazzola, K.S. Park, S. Park, V. Di Santo, E.L. Blevins, J.U. Lind, P.H. Campbell, S. Dauth, A.K. Capulli, F.S. Pasqualini, S. Ahn, A. Cho, H.Y. Yuan, B.M. Maoz, R. Vijaykumar, J.W. Choi, K. Deisseroth, G.V. Lauder, L. Mahadevan, K.K. Parker, Phototactic guidance of a tissue-engineered soft-robotic ray, Science 353 (2016) 158-162.

[23] Y. Kim, Y. Yang, X. Zhang, Z. Li, A. Vázquez-Guardado, I. Park, J.J. Wang, A.I. Efimov, Z. Dou, Y. Wang, J. Park, H.W. Luan, X.C. Ni, Y.S. Kim, J. Baek, J.J. Park, Z.Q. Xie, H.B. Zhao, M. Gazzola, J.A. Rogers, R. Bashir, Remote control of muscle-driven miniature robots with battery-free wireless optoelectronics, Sci. Robot 8 (2023).

[24] A.W. Feinberg, A. Feigel, S.S. Shevkoplyas, S. Sheehy, G.M. Whitesides, K.K. Parker, Muscular thin films for building actuators and powering devices, Science 317 (2007) 1366-1370.

[25] H. Fujita, T.D. Van, K. Shimizu, R. Hatsuda, S. Sugiyama, E. Nagamori, Designing of a Si-MEMS device with an integrated skeletal muscle cell-based bio-actuator, Biomed. Microdevices 13 (2011) 123-129.

[26] Y. Akiyama, K. Odaira, K. Sakiyama, T. Hoshino, K. Iwabuchi, K. Morishima, Rapidly-moving insect muscle-powered microrobot and its chemical acceleration, Biomed. Microdevices 14 (2012) 979-986.

[27] V. Chan, K. Park, M.B. Collens, H. Kong, T.A. Saif, R. Bashir, Development of miniaturized walking biological machines, Sci. Rep.-UK 2 (2012).

[28] J.C. Nawroth, H. Lee, A.W. Feinberg, C.M. Ripplinger, M.L. McCain, A. Grosberg, J.O. Dabiri, K.K. Parker, A tissue-engineered jellyfish with biomimetic propulsion, Nat. Biotechnol. 30 (2012) 792-797.

[29] Y. Akiyama, T. Hoshino, K. Iwabuchi, K. Morishima, Room temperature operable autonomously moving bio-microrobot powered by insect dorsal vessel tissue, PLOSONE 7 (2012).

[30] C. Cvetkovic, R. Raman, V. Chan, B.J. Williams, M. Tolish, P. Bajaj, M.S. Sakar, H.H. Asada, M. Saif, R. Bashir, Three-dimensionally printed biological machines powered by skeletal muscle, P Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111 (2014) 10125-10130.

[31] B.J. Williams, S.V. Anand, J. Rajagopalan, M. Saif, A self-propelled biohybrid swimmer at low Reynolds number, Nat. Commun. 5 (2014).

[32] M.T. Holley, N. Nagarajan, C. Danielson, P. Zorlutuna, K. Park, Development and characterization of muscle-based actuators for self-stabilizing swimming biorobots, Lab Chip 16 (2016) 3473-3484.

[33] R. Raman, C. Cvetkovic, S. Uzel, R.J. Platt, P. Sengupta, R.D. Kamm, R. Bashir, Optogenetic skeletal muscle-powered adaptive biological machines, P Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 113 (2016) 3497-3502.

[34] Y. Tanaka, Y. Noguchi, Y. Yalikun, N. Kamamichi, Earthworm muscle driven bio-micropump, Sensor Actuat. B-Chem. 242 (2017) 1186-1192.

[35] F.F. Fu, L.R. Shang, Z.Y. Chen, Y.R. Yu, Y.J. Zhao, Bioinspired living structural color hydrogels, Sci. Robot 3 (2018).

[36] Y. Alapan, O. Yasa, O. Schauer, J. Giltinan, A.F. Tabak, V. Sourjik, M. Sitti, Soft erythrocyte-based bacterial microswimmers for cargo delivery, Sci. Robot 3 (2018).

[37] H.F. Xu, M. Medina-Sánchez, V. Magdanz, L. Schwarz, F. Hebenstreit, O.G. Schmidt, Sperm-hybrid micromotor for targeted drug delivery, ACS Nano 12 (2018) 327-337.

[38] L. Liu, J.Y. Wu, B. Chen, J.B. Gao, T. Li, Y.C. Ye, H. Tian, S.H. Wang, F. Wang, J.M. Jiang, J.F. Ou, F. Tong, F. Peng, Y.F. Tu, Magnetically actuated biohybrid microswimmers for precise photothermal muscle contraction, ACS Nano 16 (2022) 6515-6526.

[39] H.Y. Zhang, Z.S. Li, C.Y. Gao, X.J. Fan, Y.X. Pang, T.L. Li, Z.G. Wu, H. Xie, Q. He, Dual-responsive biohybrid neutrobots for active target delivery, Sci. Robot 6 (2021).

[40] Y.X. Shang, Z.Y. Chen, F.F. Fu, L.Y. Sun, C.M. Shao, W. Jin, H. Liu, Y.J. Zhao, Cardiomyocyte-driven structural color actuation in anisotropic inverse opals, ACS Nano 13 (2019) 796-802.

[41] O. Aydin, X.T. Zhang, S. Nuethong, G.J. Pagan-Diaz, R. Bashir, M. Gazzola, M. Saif, Neuromuscular actuation of biohybrid motile bots, P Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 116 (2019) 19841-19847.

[42] L.Y. Sun, Z.Y. Chen, F.K. Bian, Y.J. Zhao, Bioinspired soft robotic caterpillar with cardiomyocyte drivers, Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 (2020).

[43] Y. Morimoto, H. Onoe, S. Takeuchi, Biohybrid robot with skeletal muscle tissue covered with a collagen structure for moving in air, Apl. Bioeng. 4 (2020).

[44] C.D. Kaufman, S.C. Liu, C. Cvetkovic, C.A. Lee, G.N. Kouzehgarani, R. Gillette, R. Bashir, M.U. Gillette, Emergence of functional neuromuscular junctions in an engineered, multicellular spinal cord-muscle bioactuator, Apl. Bioeng. 4 (2020).

[45] D. Blackiston, E. Lederer, S. Kriegman, S. Garnier, J. Bongard, M. Levin, A cellular platform for the development of synthetic living machines, Sci. Robot 6 (2021).

[46] X.Z. Ren, Y. Morimoto, S. Takeuchi, Biohybrid hand actuated by multiple human muscle tissues, Sci. Robot 10 (2025).

[47] H. Horiguchi, K. Imagawa, T. Hoshino, Y. Akiyama, K. Morishima, Fabrication and evaluation of reconstructed cardiac tissue and its application to bio-actuated microdevices, IEEE T Nanobiosci 8 (2009) 349-355.

[48] V. Magdanz, S. Sanchez, O.G. Schmidt, Development of a sperm-flagella driven micro-bio-robot, Adv. Mater. 25 (2013) 6581-6588.

[49] D.H. Kim, U.K. Cheang, L. Kohidai, D. Byun, M.J. Kim, Artificial magnetotactic motion control of tetrahymena pyriformis using ferromagnetic nanoparticles: A tool for fabrication of microbiorobots, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97 (2010).

[50] L. Yang, C. Zhang, H. Qin, R. Wang, Y. Zhang, Q. Zhang, J. Yang, L. Liu, Modular living muscle-based biomimetic actuators for biosyncretic robots, SmartBot, (2025).

[51] L. Gao, M.U. Akhtar, F. Yang, S. Ahmad, J.K. He, Q. Lian, W. Cheng, J.H. Zhang, D.C. Li, Recent progress in engineering functional biohybrid robots actuated by living cells, Acta Biomater. 121 (2021) 29-40.

[52] H. Tetsuka, S. Gobbi, T. Hatanaka, L. Pirrami, S.R. Shin, Wirelessly steerable bioelectronic neuromuscular robots adapting neurocardiac junctions, Sci. Robot 9 (2024).

[53] V. Magdanz, S. Sanchez, O.G. Schmidt, Development of a sperm-flagella driven micro-bio-robot, Adv. Mater. 25 (2013) 6581-6588.

[54] V. Baron, S.T. Sommer, D.J. Fiegle, A. Pfeuffer, R. Peyronnet, T. Volk, T. Seidel, Effects of electro-mechanical uncouplers, hormonal stimulation and pacing rate on the stability and function of cultured rabbit myocardial slices, Front Bioeng. Biotech. 12 (2024).

[55] P. Won, S.H. Ko, C. Majidi, A.W. Feinberg, V.A. Webster-Wood, Biohybrid actuators for soft robotics: Challenges in scaling up, Actuators 9 (2020).

[56] T. Morita, M.H. Nie, S. Takeuchi, Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac muscle rings for biohybrid self-beating actuator, Lab Chip 24 (2024).

[57] L.Y. Sun, Y.R. Yu, Z.Y. Chen, F.K. Bian, F.F. Ye, L.Y. Sun, Y.J. Zhao, Biohybrid robotics with living cell actuation, Chem. Soc. Rev. 49 (2020) 4043-4069.

[58] C. Zhang, J.Y. Wang, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, Y.C. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Modeling and analysis of bio-syncretic micro-swimmers for cardiomyocyte-based actuation, Bioinspir. Biomim. 11 (2016).

[59] M.Q. Zhao, H.T. Liu, X. Zhang, J.H. Qin, Advances in skeletal muscle engineering in biomedical research, Adv. Mater. Technol.-US 8 (2023).

[60] L.Q. Liu, C. Zhang, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, Y.C. Wang, Regulation of C2c12 differentiation and control of the beating dynamics of contractile cells for a muscle-driven biosyncretic crawler by electrical stimulation, Soft Robot 5 (2018) 748-760.

[61] N. Lynch, N. Castro, T. Sheehan, L. Rosado, B. Rios, M. Culpepper, R. Raman, Enhancing and decoding the performance of muscle actuators with flexures, Adv. Intell. Syst.-Ger. 6 (2024).

[62] C.A. Powell, B.L. Smiley, J. Mills, H.H. Vandenburgh, Mechanical stimulation improves tissue-engineered human skeletal muscle, Am. J. Physiol-Cell Ph. 283 (2002) C1557-C1565.

[63] C. Mueller, M. Trujillo-Miranda, M. Maier, D.E. Heath, A.J. O’Connor, S. Salehi, Effects of external stimulators on engineered skeletal muscle tissue maturation, Adv. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2021).

[64] C. Zhang, W.X. Wang, N. Xi, Y.C. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Development and future challenges of bio-syncretic robots, Engineering 4 (2018) 452-463.

[65] Y. Akiyama, A. Nakayama, S. Nakano, R. Amiya, J. Hirose, An electrical stimulation culture system for daily maintenance-free muscle tissue production, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2021 (2021).

[66] H. Kim, M.C. Kim, H.H. Asada, Extracellular matrix remodelling induced by alternating electrical and mechanical stimulations increases the contraction of engineered skeletal muscle tissues, Sci. Rep.-UK 9 (2019).

[67] S.P. Arjunan, D.K. Kumar, G. Naik, Computation and evaluation of features of surface electromyogram to identify the force of muscle contraction and muscle fatigue, Biomed. Res. Int. 2014 (2014).

[68] O. Aydin, A.P. Passaro, M. Elhebeary, G.J. Pagan-Diaz, A.H. Fan, S. Nuethong, R. Bashir, S.L. Stice, M. Saif, Development of 3D neuromuscular bioactuators, Apl. Bioeng. 4 (2020).

[69] Y. Yalikun, K. Uesugi, M. Hiroki, Y.G. Shen, Y. Tanaka, Y. Akiyama, K. Morishima, Insect muscular tissue-powered swimming robot, Actuators 8 (2019).

[70] J.H. Li, L. Dekanovsky, B. Khezri, B. Wu, H.J. Zhou, Z. Sofer, Biohybrid micro- and nanorobots for intelligent drug delivery, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2022 (2022).

[71] T. Chen, Y.P. Cai, B.Y. Ren, B.J. Sánchez, R.F. Dong, Intelligent micro/nanorobots based on biotemplates, Mater. Horiz 11 (2024) 2772-2801.

[72] P. Erkoc, I.C. Yasa, H. Ceylan, O. Yasa, Y. Alapan, M. Sitti, Mobile microrobots for active therapeutic delivery, Adv. Ther.-Germany 2 (2019).

[73] S. Preetam, Nano revolution: pioneering the future of water reclamation with micro-/nano-robots, Nanoscale Adv. 6 (2024) 2569-2581.

[74] H. Xu, M. Medina-Sánchez, M.F. Maitz, C. Werner, O.G. Schmidt, Sperm micromotors for cargo delivery through flowing blood, ACS Nano 14 (2020) 2982-2993.

[75] H. Oda, N. Shimizu, Y. Morimoto, S. Takeuchi, Harnessing the propulsive force of microalgae with microtrap to drive micromachines, Small 20 (2024).

[76] M.B. Akolpoglu, Y. Alapan, N.O. Dogan, S.F. Baltaci, O. Yasa, G. Aybar Tural, M. Sitti, Magnetically steerable bacterial microrobots moving in 3D biological matrices for stimuli-responsive cargo delivery, Sci. Adv. 8 (2022). eabo6163-eabo6163.

[77] N. Pellicciotta, O.S. Bagal, V.C. Sosa, G. Frangipane, G. Vizsnyiczai, R. Di Leonardo, Light controlled biohybrid microbots, Adv. Funct. Mater. (2023).

[78] L. Yang, C. Zhang, R. Wang, Y. Zhang, W. Tan, L. Liu, Bio-syncretic robots composed of living-electromechanical systems, Robot 45 (2023) 89-109.

[79] L. Ricotti, S. Taccola, V. Pensabene, V. Mattoli, T. Fujie, S. Takeoka, A. Menciassi, P. Dario, Adhesion and proliferation of skeletal muscle cells on single layer poly(lactic acid) ultra-thin films, Biomed. Microdevices 12 (2010) 809-819.

[80] N. Tanaka, T. Yamashita, Y. Yalikun, S. Amaya, A. Sato, V. Vogel, Y. Tanaka, An ultra-small fluid oscillation unit for pumping driven by self-organized three-dimensional bridging of pulsatile cardiomyocytes on elastic micro-piers, Sensors Actuators B: Chem. 293 (2019) 256-264.

[81] A. Hasebe, Y. Suematsu, S. Takeoka, T. Mazzocchi, L. Vannozzi, L. Ricotti, T. Fujie, Biohybrid actuators based on skeletal muscle-powered microgrooved ultrathin films consisting of poly(styrene-block-butadiene-block-styrene), ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 5 (2019) 5734-5743.

[82] H. Shuchang, Y. Zhou, W. Yu, L. Zhengwei, S. Jizhou, A skeletal muscle-driven spring-like biohybrid swimming robot, Sci. Sin.: Phys. Mech. Astron. 54 (2024) 106-115.

[83] C.W. Tsao, Y.P. Lee, Magnetic microparticle-polydimethylsiloxane composite for reversible microchannel bonding, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mat. 17 (2016) 2-11.

[84] S. Inagaki, T. Ishida, Fabrication of irregularity-free, highly circular cross-sectional microchannel, Micro-Switzerland 2 (2022) 325-333.

[85] M. Abdelgawad, C. Wu, W.Y. Chien, W.R. Geddie, M. Jewett, Y. Sun, A fast and simple method to fabricate circular microchannels in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Lab Chip 11 (2011) 545-551.

[86] K. Wang, Y.T. Hao, Y.N. Wang, J.Y. Chen, L.Z. Mao, Y.D. Deng, J.L. Chen, S.J. Yuan, T.T. Zhang, J.Y. Ren, W.Z. Liao, Functional hydrogels and their application in drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue engineering, Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2019 (2019).

[87] Z. Lin, T. Jiang, Y. Yang, Y. Hong, Y. Gao, H. Xie, Z. Luo, Matrigel-fibrinogen-thrombin hydrogels with high bioactivity for the fabrication of self-propelled in vitro muscular tissues, Appl. Mater. Today 39 (2024) 102315.

[88] A. Kumar, A. Sood, G. Agrawal, S. Thakur, V.K. Thakur, M. Tanaka, Y.K. Mishra, G. Christie, E. Mostafavi, R. Boukherroub, D.W. Hutmacher, S.S. Han, Polysaccharides, proteins, and synthetic polymers based multimodal hydrogels for various biomedical applications: A review, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 247 (2023).

[89] S.H. Zhong, Z.Y. Xin, Y.Z. Hou, Y. Li, H.W. Huang, T. Sun, Q. Shi, H.P. Wang, Double-modal locomotion of a hydrogel ultra-soft magnetic miniature robot with switchable forms, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 5 (2024).

[90] Q. Zhang, Y. Chen, S. Li, Y. Wu, X. Yang, Y. Guo, H. Liu, A multi-modal deformation sensing hydrogel with a nerve-inspired highly anisotropic structure, J. Mater. Chem. A 13 (2025) 3317-3326.

[91] Y. Sun, L. Chen, Z.H. Zeng, T.L. Wang, K.H. Zhang, Y. Sun, L. Yang, X.L. Feng, Q.K. Sun, C.X. Ma, S.W. Xiao, Z.Z. Liu, J. Liu, X.X. Yang, A flatworm-like hydrogel with surface double-network structure for re-programmable multimode actuations, Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 (2024).

[92] Y.X. Lu, H.F. Zhou, W.C. Zhao, J.L. Jiang, J.F. Du, L. Zhao, Radiation synthesis of high conductivity hydrogel based on tragacanth gum/poly (ionic liquids) for multimodal sensors and supercapacitor, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 282 (2024).

[93] L.Q. Luo, Z.X. Wu, Q.L. Ding, H. Wang, Y.B. Luo, J.H. Yu, H. Guo, K. Tao, S. Zhang, F.W. Huo, J. Wu, In situ structural densification of hydrogel network and its interface with electrodes for high-performance multimodal artificial skin, ACS Nano 18 (2024) 15754-15768.

[94] X.Y. Duan, Y.Z. Mi, T.Y. Lei, X. Ma, Z. Chen, J.H. Kong, X.H. Lu, Highly elastic spongelike hydrogels for impedance-based multimodal sensing, ACS Nano 19 (2025) 2909-2921.

[95] K. Roshanbinfar, A.D. Evans, S. Samanta, M. Kolesnik-Gray, M. Fiedler, V. Krstic, F.B. Engel, O.P. Oommen, Enhancing biofabrication: Shrink-resistant collagen-hyaluronan composite hydrogel for tissue engineering and 3D bioprinting applications, Biomaterials 318 (2025) 123174.

[96] Z.L. Tang, Y. Akiyama, T. Okano, Temperature-responsive polymer modified surface for cell sheet engineering, Polymers-Basel 4 (2012) 1478-1498.

[97] S.R. Shin, B. Migliori, B. Miccoli, Y.C. Li, P. Mostafalu, J. Seo, S. Mandla, A. Enrico, S. Antona, R. Sabarish, T. Zheng, L. Pirrami, K. Zhang, Y.S. Zhang, K.T. Wan, D. Demarchi, M.R. Dokmeci, A. Khademhosseini, Electrically driven microengineered bioinspired soft robots, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018).

[98] Y.W. Lee, S. Chun, D. Son, X.H. Hu, M. Schneider, M. Sitti, A tissue adhesion-controllable and biocompatible small-scale hydrogel adhesive robot, Adv. Mater. 34 (2022).

[99] Y. Kim, G. Pagan-Diaz, L. Gapinske, Y. Kim, J. Suh, E. Solomon, J.F. Harris, S. Nam, R. Bashir, Integration of graphene electrodes with 3D skeletal muscle tissue models, Adv. Healthc. Mater. 9 (2020).

[100] L.Q. Wang, F.R. Liu, J. Qian, Z.L. Wu, R. Xiao, Multi-responsive PNIPAM-PEGDA hydrogel composite, Soft Matter 17 (2021) 10421-10427.

[101] A. Cho, Y. Jin, Y. An, J. Kim, Y.S. Choi, J.S. Lee, J. Kim, W. Choi, D. Koo, W. Yu, G. Chang, D. Kim, S. Jo, J. Kim, S. Kim, Y. Kim, J.Y. Kim, N. Choi, E. Cheong, Y. Kim, H.S. Je, H. Kang, S. Cho, Microfluidic device with brain extracellular matrix promotes structural and functional maturation of human brain organoids, Nat. Commun. 12 (2021).

[102] H. Tetsuka, L. Pirrami, T. Wang, D. Demarchi, S.R. Shin, Wirelessly powered 3D printed hierarchical biohybrid robots with multiscale mechanical properties, Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 (2022).

[103] X. Huang, L. Zhang, J. Hang, T. Quinn, N.K.A. Nasar, Y. Lin, C. Hu, X. Pang, X. Chen, T.P. Davis, R. Qiao, 4D printing hybrid soft robots enabled by shape-transformable liquid metal nanoparticles, Adv. Mater. 36 (2024).

[104] Y. Yamamoto, A. Ito, H. Fujita, E. Nagamori, Y. Kawabe, M. Kamihira, Functional evaluation of artificial skeletal muscle tissue constructs fabricated by a magnetic force-based tissue engineering technique, Tissue Eng. Pt A 17 (2011) 107-114.

[105] Y. Yamamoto, A. Ito, H. Jitsunobu, K. Yamaguchi, Y. Kawabe, H. Mizumoto, M. Kamihira, Hollow fiber bioreactor perfusion culture system for magnetic force-based skeletal muscle tissue engineering, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 45 (2012) 348-354.

[106] G.Z. Cai, Z.X. Yang, Y.C. Chen, Y.R. Huang, L.J. Liang, S.L. Feng, J.L. Zhao, Magnetic bead manipulation in microfluidic chips for biological application, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 4 (2023).

[107] M. Tehranirokh, A.Z. Kouzani, P.S. Francis, J.R. Kanwar, Microfluidic devices for cell cultivation and proliferation, Biomicrofluidics 7 (2013).

[108] M.H. Liu, A.P. Wu, J.X. Liu, Y.F. Zhao, X.Y. Dong, T. Sun, Q. Shi, H.P. Wang, TPP-based microfluidic chip design and fabrication method for optimized nerve cells directed growth, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 5 (2024).

[109] G.J. Pagan-Diaz, X.T. Zhang, L. Grant, Y. Kim, O. Aydin, C. Cvetkovic, E. Ko, E. Solomon, J. Hollis, H. Kong, T. Saif, M. Gazzola, R. Bashir, Simulation and fabrication of stronger, larger, and faster walking biohybrid machines, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018).

[110] P. Bingchu, L. Shao, J. Jiang, S. Zou, H. Kong, R. Hou, Y. Yao, J. Du, Y. Jin, 3D printing sacrificial templates for manufacturing hydrogel constructs with channel networks, Mater. Design 222 (2022).

[111] H. Tao, X.Y. Zhang, X.M. Yuan, Z.Q. Lian, J. Xu, D.B. Shan, B. Guo, 3D bioprinting technology in tissue engineering printing method and material selection, BionanoScience 15 (2025).

[112] S. Ji, M. Guvendiren, Complex 3D bioprinting methods, Apl. Bioeng. 5 (2021).

[113] H. Lee, Engineering in vitro models: Bioprinting of organoids with artificial intelligence, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 4 (2023).

[114] J.P. Jung, D.B. Bhuiyan, B.M. Ogle, Solid organ fabrication: comparison of decellularization to 3D bioprinting, Biomater. Res. 20 (2016). 27-27.

[115] M. Filippi, T. Buchner, O. Yasa, S. Weirich, R.K. Katzschmann, Microfluidic tissue engineering and bio-actuation, Adv. Mater. 34 (2022).

[116] S.J. Kim, M.G. Kim, J. Kim, J.S. Jeon, J. Park, H.G. Yi, Bioprinting methods for fabricating in vitro tubular blood vessel models, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 4 (2023).

[117] Z.Y. Zhang, C.M. Wu, C.K. Dai, Q.Q. Shi, G.X. Fang, D.F. Xie, X.J. Zhao, Y.J. Liu, C. Wang, X.J. Wang, A multi-axis robot-based bioprinting system supporting natural cell function preservation and cardiac tissue fabrication, Bioact. Mater. 18 (2022) 138-150.

[118] Y.G. Park, S. Kim, S.J. Min, E. Kim, D. Kim, Y.H. Cho, S. Kim, H. Joo, I. Jeong, J.A. Lim, S. Lee, S.W. Cho, J.U. Park, Soft 3D bioelectrodes for intraorganoid signal monitoring in cardiac models, Nano Lett. (2025).

[119] V.A. Webster, F.R. Young, J.M. Patel, G.N. Scariano, O. Akkus, U.A. Gurkan, H.J. Chiel, R.D. Quinn, 3D-Printed Biohybrid Robots Powered by Neuromuscular Tissue Circuits from Aplysia californica, in: M. Mangan, M. Cutkosky, A. Mura, P. Verschure, T. Prescott, N. Lepora (Eds.), Biomimetic and Biohybrid Systems, Living Machines 2017 6th International Conference on Biomimetic and Biohybrid Systems, 2017.

[120] A. Verderber, M. McKnight, A. Bozkurt, Early metamorphic insertion technology for insect flight behavior monitoring, J. Vis. Exp. (2014).

[121] R. Kinjo, Y. Morimoto, B. Jo, S. Takeuchi, Biohybrid bipedal robot powered by skeletal muscle tissue, Matter-US 7 (2024).

[122] K. Kai, H.D. Nguyen, W.Y. Wan, H. Sato, The walking control of a crab biorobot in amphibious environment, Soft Robot 11 (2024) 596-605.

[123] J.Y. Xiong, X. Li, Z.Y. He, Y. Shi, T. Pan, G.S. Zhu, D.Y. Lu, H.B. Xin, Light-controlled soft bio-microrobot, Light-Sci. Appl. 13 (2024).

[124] Y.H. Ma, Y.W. Zhang, L.C. Yang, H.S. Qin, W.F. Liang, C. Zhang, Light-driven small-scale soft robots: material, design and control, Smart Mater Struct. 33 (2024).

[125] X.Y. Liang, Y. Zhao, D. Liu, Y. Deng, T. Arai, M. Kojima, X.M. Liu, Magnetic microrobots fabricated by photopolymerization and assembly, Cyborg Bionic Syst. 4 (2023).

[126] T. Gwisai, N. Mirkhani, M.G. Christiansen, T.T. Nguyen, V. Ling, S. Schuerle, Magnetic torque-driven living microrobots for increased tumor infiltration, Sci. Robot 7 (2022).

[127] D. Huska, C.C. Mayorga-Martinez, R. Zelinka, M. Pumera, Magnetic biohybrid robots as efficient drug carrier to generate plant cell clones, Small 18 (2022).

[128] M.Y. Li, J.F. Wu, D.J. Lin, J. Yang, N.D. Jiao, Y.C. Wang, L.Q. Liu, A diatom-based biohybrid microrobot with a high drug-loading capacity and pH-sensitive drug release for target therapy, Acta Biomater. 154 (2022) 443-453.

[129] Z.B. Wang, Z.J. Xu, B. Zhu, Y. Zhang, J.W. Lin, Y.G. Wu, D.Z. Wu, Design, fabrication and application of magnetically actuated micro/nanorobots: a review, Nanotechnology 33 (2022).

[130] D. Park, S.J. Park, S. Cho, Y. Lee, Y.K. Lee, J.J. Min, B.J. Park, S.Y. Ko, J.O. Park, S. Park, Motility analysis of bacteria-based microrobot (bacteriobot) using chemical gradient microchamber, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 111 (2014) 134-143.

[131] B.Z. Xu, X.M. Han, Y.W. Hu, Y.M. Luo, C.H. Chen, Z. Chen, P. Shi, A remotely controlled transformable soft robot based on engineered cardiac tissue construct, Small 15 (2019).

[132] O. Felfoul, M. Mohammadi, S. Taherkhani, D. de Lanauze, Y.Z. Xu, D. Loghin, S. Essa, S. Jancik, D. Houle, M. Lafleur, L. Gaboury, M. Tabrizian, N. Kaou, M. Atkin, T. Vuong, G. Batist, N. Beauchemin, D. Radzioch, S. Martel, Magneto-aerotactic bacteria deliver drug-containing nanoliposomes to tumour hypoxic regions, Nat. Nanotechnol. 11 (2016) 941-947.

[133] L.E. Bertassoni, M. Cecconi, V. Manoharan, M. Nikkhah, J. Hjortnaes, A.L. Cristino, G. Barabaschi, D. Demarchi, M.R. Dokmeci, Y. Yang, A. Khademhosseini, Hydrogel bioprinted microchannel networks for vascularization of tissue engineering constructs, Lab Chip 14 (2014) 2202-2211.

[134] D. Huh, B.D. Matthews, A. Mammoto, M. Montoya-Zavala, H.Y. Hsin, D.E. Ingber, Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip, Science 328 (2010) 1662-1668.

[135] C. Zhang, J. Yang, W.X. Wang, L.Q. Liu, Bio-syncretic robots composed of biological and electromechanical systems, Natl. Sci. Rev. 10 (2023).

[136] A.K. Mishra, J. Kim, H. Baghdadi, B.R. Johnson, K.T. Hodge, R.F. Shepherd, Sensorimotor control of robots mediated by electrophysiological measurements of fungal mycelia, Sci. Robot 9 (2024).

[137] M. Soliman, F. Forbes, D.D. Damian, Yeast-driven and bioimpedance-sensitive biohybrid soft robots, Cyborg Bionic. Syst. 6 (2025).