Preparation of bio-carbon by polymerization of bio-tar: a critical review on mechanisms, processes, and applications

Abstract

Biomass pyrolysis serves as a pivotal technology in renewable energy development, yet persistent bio-tar formation remains a critical challenge in pyrolysis processes. The innovative strategy of converting bio-tar into bio-carbon presents a promising pathway for technological advancement. To assess the efficacy and value of this approach, a comprehensive analysis of existing research advancements is warranted. This review systematically elucidates the polymerization mechanisms, polymerization process regulation, and application potential of derived bio-carbon. Notably, oxygenated compounds containing carbonyl groups and furan rings serve as critical precursors in bio-tar polymerization, where their unsaturated oxygen-containing functional groups facilitate bond cleavage and recombination. The main methods for regulating polymerization were analyzed by considering interactions between multiple influencing factors during polymerization. Reaction parameters significantly modulate bio-carbon yield by altering bio-tar component states and polymerization reaction, while additive incorporation enhances the physicochemical characteristics of bio-carbon. Crucially, bio-carbon produced through secondary biomass thermoconversion emerges as a novel carbon material, with its primary applications focusing on high-performance carbon material synthesis via value-added utilization pathways. This work establishes a theoretical framework for both bio-tar treatment and advanced carbon material development, offering systematic insights into polymerization mechanisms and application prospects.

Keywords

Bio-tar / Bio-carbon / Polymerization mechanism / Key components / Polymerization process / Potential applications

References

[1] BrzozowskaT, ZieliñskiJ, MachnikowskiJ. Effect of polymeric additives to coal tar pitch on carbonization behaviour and optical texture of resultant cokes. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 1998, 48: 45-58.

[2] ChengB, HuangB, ZhangR, ChenY, JiangS, LuY, et al.. Bio-coal: a renewable and massively producible fuel from lignocellulosic biomass. Sci Adv, 2020, 6eaay748.

[3] ChoS, LeeS, KimY, SongH, LeeJ, TsangYF, et al.. Applications of agricultural residue biochars to removal of toxic gases emitted from chemical plants: a review. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 868. 161655

[4] DelgadoJ, AznarMP, CorellaJ. Biomass gasification with steam in fluidized bed: effectiveness of CaO, MgO, and CaO-MgO for hot raw gas cleaning. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1997, 36: 1535-1543.

[5] DiBlasiC. Heat, momentum and mass transport through a shrinking biomass particle exposed to thermal radiation. Chem Eng Sci, 1996, 51: 1121-1132.

[6] DilksRT, MonetteF, GlausM. The major parameters on biomass pyrolysis for hyperaccumulative plants—a review. Chemosphere, 2016, 146: 385-395.

[7] DissanayakePD, YouS, IgalavithanaAD, XiaY, BhatnagarA, GuptaS, et al.. Biochar-based adsorbents for carbon dioxide capture: a critical review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2020, 119. 109582

[8] DomínguezA, MenéndezJA, InguanzoM, PísJJ. Production of bio-fuels by high temperature pyrolysis of sewage sludge using conventional and microwave heating. Bioresour Technol, 2006, 97: 1185-1193.

[9] El-RubZA, BramerEA, BremG. Experimental comparison of biomass chars with other catalysts for tar reduction. Fuel (Lond), 2008, 87: 2243-2252.

[10] FagbemiL, KhezamiL, CapartR. Pyrolysis products from different biomasses: application to the thermal cracking of tar. Appl Energy, 2001, 69: 293-306.

[11] FrackowiakE, LotaG, MachnikowskiJ, Vix-GuterlC, BéguinF. Optimisation of supercapacitors using carbons with controlled nanotexture and nitrogen content. Electrochim Acta, 2006, 51: 2209-2214.

[12] GuanG, KaewpanhaM, HaoX, AbudulaA. Catalytic steam reforming of biomass tar: prospects and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2016, 58: 450-461.

[13] GuoX, FangG, LiG, MaH, FanH, YuL, et al.. Direct, nonoxidative conversion of methane to ethylene, aromatics, and hydrogen. Science, 2014, 344: 616-619.

[14] GuoF, JiaX, LiangS, ZhouN, ChenP, RuanR. Development of biochar-based nanocatalysts for tar cracking/reforming during biomass pyrolysis and gasification. Bioresour Technol, 2020, 298. 122263

[15] HanJ, KimH. The reduction and control technology of tar during biomass gasification/pyrolysis: an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2008, 12: 397-416.

[16] HeidenreichS, FoscoloPU. New concepts in biomass gasification. Prog Energy Combust Sci, 2015, 46: 72-95.

[17] HosseiniSE, WahidMA. Hydrogen production from renewable and sustainable energy resources: promising green energy carrier for clean development. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2016, 57: 850-866.

[18] HuX, WangY, MourantD, GunawanR, LievensC, ChaiwatW, et al.. Polymerization on heating up of bio-oil: a model compound study. AIChE J, 2013, 59: 888-900.

[19] HuX, NangoK, BaoL, LiT, HasanMDM, LiC. High yields of solid carbonaceous materials from biomass. Green Chem Int J Green Chem Resour GC, 2019, 21: 1128-1140.

[20] HuangR, YuanX, YanL, HanL, BaoW, ChangL, et al.. Carbon precursors in coal tar: extraction and preparation of carbon materials. Sci Total Environ, 2021, 788. 147697

[21] JiaL, Le BrechY, MauvielG, QiF, Bente-von FroweinM, EhlertS, et al.. Online analysis of biomass pyrolysis tar by photoionization mass spectrometry. Energy Fuels, 2016, 30: 1555-1563.

[22] JiaJ, ZhaoL, LiuZ, HaoX, HuoL, ZhaoY, et al.. Spray atomization characteristics of biomass pyrolysis tar: influence of methanol addition, temperature, and atomization pressure. Energy (Oxf), 2022, 242. 122534

[23] JiaJ, SunY, LiuZ, LiuZ, HuoL, KangK, et al.. Waste bio-tar based N-doped porous carbon for supercapacitors under dual activation: performance, mechanism, and assessment. Biochar, 2023.

[24] JinQ, WangX, LiS, MikulčićH, BešenićT, DengS, et al.. Synergistic effects during co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic: gas, tar, soot, char products and thermogravimetric study. J Energy Inst, 2019, 92: 108-117.

[25] KimE, ChangHS, LeeB, ParkJ, YunJ, ChoiJ. KCl-assisted synthesis of hierarchically porous carbon materials from water-soluble 2-hydroxyethyl cellulose for high-performance green supercapacitors. Sustain Mater Technol, 2022, 34. e520

[26] KrerkkaiwanS, FushimiC, TsutsumiA, KuchontharaP. Synergetic effect during co-pyrolysis/gasification of biomass and sub-bituminous coal. Fuel Process Technol, 2013, 115: 11-18.

[27] LeeJ, KimK, KwonEE. Biochar as a catalyst. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2017, 77: 70-79.

[28] LiC, SuzukiK. Tar property, analysis, reforming mechanism and model for biomass gasification—an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2009, 13: 594-604.

[29] LiCZ, SatheC, KershawJR, PangY. Fates and roles of alkali and alkaline earth metals during the pyrolysis of a Victorian brown coal. Fuel (Lond), 2000, 79: 427-438.

[30] LiJ, XuK, YaoX, LiuJ. Slow pyrolysis experimental investigation on the tar formation and its pyrolysis behavior characteristics. Process Saf Environ Prot, 2024, 184: 660-671.

[31] LiJ, YangD, YaoX, ZhouH, XuK, GengL. Slow pyrolysis experimental investigation of biomass tar formation and hydrogen production by tar reforming. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 2024, 52: 74-87.

[32] LiuS, LiangY, ZhouW, HuW, DongH, ZhengM, et al.. Large-scale synthesis of porous carbonvia one-step CuCl2 activation of rape pollen for high-performance supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A Mater, 2018, 6: 12046-12055.

[33] LopezG, ArtetxeM, AmutioM, AlvarezJ, BilbaoJ, OlazarM. Recent advances in the gasification of waste plastics. A critical overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 82: 576-596.

[34] LotaG, GrzybB, MachnikowskaH, MachnikowskiJ, FrackowiakE. Effect of nitrogen in carbon electrode on the supercapacitor performance. Chem Phys Lett, 2005, 404: 53-58.

[35] LuH, IpE, ScottJ, FosterP, VickersM, BaxterLL. Effects of particle shape and size on devolatilization of biomass particle. Fuel (Lond), 2010, 89: 1156-1168.

[36] LuoZ, LinN, SunM, WangY, ZhuX. Synthesis of 3D-interconnected hierarchical porous carbon from heavy fraction of bio-oil using crayfish shell as the biological template for high-performance supercapacitors. Carbon N Y, 2021, 173: 910-917.

[37] LvD, XuM, LiuX, ZhanZ, LiZ, YaoH. Effect of cellulose, lignin, alkali and alkaline earth metallic species on biomass pyrolysis and gasification. Fuel Process Technol, 2010, 91: 903-909.

[38] McLaughlinH, LittlefieldAA, MenefeeM, KinzerA, HullT, SovacoolBK, et al.. Carbon capture utilization and storage in review: sociotechnical implications for a carbon reliant world. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2023, 177. 113215

[39] MillerRS, BellanJ. A generalized biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin kinetics. Combust Sci Technol, 1997, 126: 97-137.

[40] MochizukiY, TsubouchiN. Preparation of pelletized coke by co-carbonization of caking coal and pyrolyzed char modified with tar produced during pyrolysis of woody biomass. Fuel Process Technol, 2019, 193: 328-337.

[41] MochizukiY, TsubouchiN. Preparation of coke from biomass char modified by vapour deposition of tar generated during pyrolysis of woody biomass. Ironmak Steelmak, 2022, 49: 646-657.

[42] MorfP, HaslerP, NussbaumerT. Mechanisms and kinetics of homogeneous secondary reactions of tar from continuous pyrolysis of wood chips. Fuel (Lond), 2002, 81: 843-853.

[43] Mousavi-AvvalSH, SahooK, NepalP, RungeT, BergmanR. Environmental impacts and techno-economic assessments of biobased products: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2023, 180. 113302

[44] NiM, LeungD, LeungM, SumathyK. An overview of hydrogen production from biomass. Fuel Process Technol, 2006, 87: 461-472.

[45] PalmaCF. Modelling of tar formation and evolution for biomass gasification: a review. Appl Energy, 2013, 111: 129-141.

[46] ParkWC, AtreyaA, BaumHR. Experimental and theoretical investigation of heat and mass transfer processes during wood pyrolysis. Combust Flame, 2010, 157: 481-494.

[47] PatwardhanPR, SatrioJA, BrownRC, ShanksBH. Product distribution from fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 2009, 86: 323-330.

[48] PrauchnerMJ, PasaVMD, OtaniC, OtaniS. Characterization and thermal polymerization of eucalyptus tar pitches. Energy Fuels, 2001, 15: 449-454.

[49] QianK, KumarA, ZhangH, BellmerD, HuhnkeR. Recent advances in utilization of biochar. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2015, 42: 1055-1064.

[50] RapagnaS, JandN, FoscoloPU. Catalytic gasification of biomass to produce hydrogen rich gas. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 1998, 23: 551-557.

[51] RubinEM. Genomics of cellulosic biofuels. Nature, 2008, 454: 841-845.

[52] SairesP, Ariza BarrazaC, BerteroM, PujroR, FalcoM, SedranU. Characterization of pyrolytic tars derived from different biomasses. Processes (Basel), 2024, 12817.

[53] SansaniwalSK, PalK, RosenMA, TyagiSK. Recent advances in the development of biomass gasification technology: a comprehensive review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2017, 72: 363-384.

[54] SavovaD, ApakE, EkinciE, YardimF, PetrovN, BudinovaT, et al.. Biomass conversion to carbon adsorbents and gas. Biomass Bioenergy, 2001, 21: 133-142.

[55] ShaoJ, MaC, ZhaoJ, WangL, HuX. Effective nitrogen and sulfur co-doped porous carbonaceous CO₂ adsorbents derived from amino acid. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Aspects, 2022, 632. 127750

[56] ShenY. Chars as carbonaceous adsorbents/catalysts for tar elimination during biomass pyrolysis or gasification. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2015, 43: 281-295.

[57] ShenY, YoshikawaK. Recent progresses in catalytic tar elimination during biomass gasification or pyrolysis—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2013, 21: 371-392.

[58] ShenDK, GuS, LuoKH, WangSR, FangMX. The pyrolytic degradation of wood-derived lignin from pulping process. Bioresour Technol, 2010, 101: 6136-6146.

[59] ShenY, ZhaoP, MaD, YoshikawaK. Tar in-situ conversion for biomass gasification via mixing-simulation with rice husk char-supported catalysts. Energy Procedia, 2014, 61: 1549-1552.

[60] ShenY, ZhaoP, ShaoQ, MaD, TakahashiF, YoshikawaK. In-situ catalytic conversion of tar using rice husk char-supported nickel-iron catalysts for biomass pyrolysis/gasification. Appl Catal B, 2014, 152: 140-151.

[61] ShenD, JinW, HuJ, XiaoR, LuoK. An overview on fast pyrolysis of the main constituents in lignocellulosic biomass to valued-added chemicals: structures, pathways and interactions. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2015, 51: 761-774.

[62] ShenY, WangJ, GeX, ChenM. By-products recycling for syngas cleanup in biomass pyrolysis—an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2016, 59: 1246-1268.

[63] ShiX, RonsseF, PietersJG. Finite element modeling of intraparticle heterogeneous tar conversion during pyrolysis of woody biomass particles. Fuel Process Technol, 2016, 148: 302-316.

[64] ShuklaB, KoshiM. Comparative study on the growth mechanisms of PAHs. Combust Flame, 2011, 158: 369-375.

[65] SubramaniamT, KrishnanSG, AnsariMNM, HamidNA, KhalidM. Recent progress on supercapacitive performance of agrowaste fibers: a review. Crit Rev Solid State Mat Sci, 2023, 48: 289-331.

[66] SunH, FengD, SunS, WeiQ, ZhaoY, ZhangY, et al.. Effect of steam on coke deposition during the tar reforming from corn straw pyrolysis over biochar. Fuel Process Technol, 2021, 224. 107007

[67] SunH, SunS, FengD, ZhaoY, ZhangY, ZhangL, et al.. Mechanism of coke formation and corresponding gas fraction characteristics in biochar-catalyzed tar reforming during Corn Straw Pyrolysis. Fuel Process Technol, 2021, 221. 106903

[68] SunY, JiaJ, LiuZ, LiuZ, HuoL, ZhaoL, et al.. Heteroatom-doped biochar devised from cellulose for CO₂ adsorption: a new vision on competitive behavior and interactions of N and S. Biochar, 2023.

[69] SunY, JiaJ, LiuZ, LiuZ, HuoL, ZhaoL, et al.. Nitrogen-doped biochar derived from corn straw for CO₂ adsorption: a new vision on nitrogen sources comparison. Carbon Res, 2024.

[70] SunY, SunP, JiaJ, LiuZ, HuoL, ZhaoL, et al.. Machine learning in clarifying complex relationships: biochar preparation procedures and capacitance characteristics. Chem Eng J, 2024.

[71] TangF, JinY, ChiY, MaJ, ZhuZ, ChenS. Experimental and theoretical studies on the conversion of biomass pyrolysis tar under the effect of steam. Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2024, 14: 3917-3925.

[72] VitoloS, SeggianiM, FredianiP, AmbrosiniG, PolitiL. Catalytic upgrading of pyrolytic oils to fuel over different zeolites. Fuel (Lond), 1999, 78: 1147-1159.

[73] VitoloS, BresciB, SeggianiM, GalloMG. Catalytic upgrading of pyrolytic oils over HZSM-5 zeolite: behaviour of the catalyst when used in repeated upgrading-regenerating cycles. Fuel (Lond), 2001, 80: 17-26.

[74] WangL, LiD, KoikeM, KosoS, NakagawaY, XuY, et al.. Catalytic performance and characterization of Ni-Fe catalysts for the steam reforming of tar from biomass pyrolysis to synthesis gas. Appl Catal A-Gen, 2011, 392: 248-255.

[75] WangY, MourantD, HuX, ZhangS, LievensC, LiC. Formation of coke during the pyrolysis of bio-oil. Fuel (Lond), 2013, 108: 439-444.

[76] WorasuwannarakN, SonobeT, TanthapanichakoonW. Pyrolysis behaviors of rice straw, rice husk, and corncob by TG-MS technique. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 2007, 78: 265-271.

[77] WuJ, LiuQ, WangR, HeW, ShiL, GuoX, et al.. Coke formation during thermal reaction of tar from pyrolysis of a subbituminous coal. Fuel Process Technol, 2017, 155: 68-73.

[78] WuJ, XiaM, ZhangX, ChenY, SunF, WangX, et al.. Hierarchical porous carbon derived from wood tar using crab as the template: Performance on supercapacitor. J Power Sources, 2020, 455. 227982

[79] XiongZ, Syed-HassanSSA, HuX, GuoJ, ChenY, LiuQ, et al.. Effects of the component interaction on the formation of aromatic structures during the pyrolysis of bio-oil at various temperatures and heating rates. Fuel (Lond), 2018, 233: 461-468.

[80] XiongZ, WangY, Syed-HassanSSA, HuX, HanH, SuS, et al.. Effects of heating rate on the evolution of bio-oil during its pyrolysis. Energy Convers Manag, 2018, 163: 420-427.

[81] XiongZ, ChenY, AzisMM, HuX, DengW, HanH, et al.. Roles of furfural during the thermal treatment of bio-oil at low temperatures. J Energy Chem, 2020, 50: 85-95.

[82] XuT, XuF, HuZ, ChenZ, XiaoB. Non-isothermal kinetics of biomass-pyrolysis-derived-tar (BPDT) thermal decomposition via thermogravimetric analysis. Energy Convers Manag, 2017, 138: 452-460.

[83] XueB, XuJ, ChenZ, XiaoR. Valorizing high-fraction bio-oil to prepare 3D interconnected porous carbon with efficient pore utilization for supercapacitor applications. Fuel Process Technol, 2023, 239. 107538

[84] YangK, WangJ, HuangJ, YangJ, PanY, XuM, et al.. Understanding the homogeneous reactions of primary tar from biomass pyrolysis by means of photoionization mass spectrometry. Energy Fuels, 2020, 34: 12678-12687.

[85] YangX, ZhaoS, ZhangZ, ChiY, YangC, WangC, et al.. Pore structure regulation of hierarchical porous carbon derived from coal tar pitch via pre-oxidation strategy for high-performance supercapacitor. J Colloid Interface Sci, 2022, 614: 298-309.

[86] YangY, ZuoP, QuS. Adjusting hydrophily and aromaticity strategy for pitch-based hierarchical porous carbon and its application in flexible supercapacitor. Fuel (Lond), 2022, 311. 122514

[87] YaoZ, KangK, CongH, JiaJ, HuoL, DengY, et al.. Demonstration and multi-perspective analysis of industrial-scale co-pyrolysis of biomass, waste agricultural film, and bituminous coal. J Clean Prod, 2021, 290. 125819

[88] YuJ, PatersonN, BlameyJ, MillanM. Cellulose, xylan and lignin interactions during pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Fuel (Lond), 2017, 191: 140-149.

[89] YuanX, XiaoJ, YılmazM, ZhangTC, YuanS. N, P Co-doped porous biochar derived from cornstalk for high performance CO₂ adsorption and electrochemical energy storage. Sep Purif Technol, 2022, 299. 121719

[90] ZhangL, YaoZ, ZhaoL, LiZ, YiW, KangK, et al.. Synthesis and characterization of different activated biochar catalysts for removal of biomass pyrolysis tar. Energy (Oxf), 2021, 232. 120927

[91] ZhangX, HanR, LiuY, LiH, ShiW, YanX, et al.. Porous and graphitic structure optimization of biomass-based carbon materials from 0D to 3D for supercapacitors: a review. Chem Eng J, 2023, 460. 141607

[92] ZhengX, ChenC, YingZ, WangB, ChiY. Py-GC/MS study on tar formation characteristics of MSW Key component pyrolysis. Waste Biomass Valorization, 2017, 8: 313-319.

[93] ZhiM, YangF, MengF, LiM, ManivannanA, WuN. Effects of pore structure on performance of an activated-carbon supercapacitor electrode recycled from scrap waste tires. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2014, 2: 1592-1598.

[94] ZhouM, ZengZ, ZhuH, XiaoG, XiaoR. Aqueous-phase catalytic hydrogenation of furfural to cyclopentanol over Cu-Mg-Al hydrotalcites derived catalysts: model reaction for upgrading of bio-oil. J Energy Chem, 2014, 23: 91-96.

[95] ZhouR, CaoR, LiuY, MaD, YaoQ, WangJ, et al.. Study on the characteristics and mechanism of fast co-pyrolysis of coal tar asphaltene and biomass. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 2022, 161. 105409

[96] ZhuX, LuoZ, GuoW, CaiW, ZhuX. Reutilization of biomass pyrolysis waste: tailoring dual-doped biochar from refining residue of bio-oil through one-step self-assembly. J Clean Prod, 2022, 343. 131046

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52376220)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)