Kinetic modelling of Chlorella spp. wastewater treatment and resource recovery in the food industry

Abstract

Effluents generated in the food and beverage industry typically contain elevated concentrations of organic carbon sources and inorganic nutrients, representing a significant environmental burden as global food demand continues to rise. Owing to their capacity to effectively assimilate carbon and nutrients while simultaneously generating biomass with potential valorization pathways, Chlorella spp. offers a dual benefit of contaminant removal and resource recovery. However, existing algal studies remain predominantly at the laboratory scale, and their competitive advantages have not been demonstrated for full-scale implementation. Kinetic modelling represents an essential tool to elucidate algal growth behavior, optimize operational conditions, and predict performance of algal systems for accurate scale-up, but limited studies are available to comprehensively review kinetic models of Chlorella spp. In this review, kinetic models were synthesized, including sigmoidal growth models (Gompertz, logistic, and Verhulst), single-factor and inhibition models (Monod and Andrews), light-dependent photobioreactor models (Huisman), multifactor and interaction models for co-cultures (Lotka–Volterra). Kinetic parameters from these models were compiled to support consistent projections from lab-scale to industrial-scale systems, enabling future techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment of algal systems. Other emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning approaches, were also reviewed. The review also identified benchmark processes and outlined a decision tree for developing strategies to enhance resource recovery and phycoremediation performance. Finally, key research needs have been highlighted to guide future work in the field.

Keywords

Chlorella spp. / Kinetic model / Algal compound / Growth / Phycoremediation / Wastewater valorization / Circular economy

References

[1] Acién FG, Gómez-Serrano C, Morales-Amaral MM, et al. Wastewater treatment using microalgae: how realistic a contribution might it be to significant urban wastewater treatment?. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2016, 100: 9013-9022.

[2] Ahmad Sobri MZ, Khoo KS, Sahrin NT, et al. Kinetic model derived from machine learning for accurate prediction of microalgal hydrogen production via conversion from low thermally pre-treated palm kernel expeller waste. Chemosphere, 2023, 338. 139526

[3] Ahuja M, Verma V, Kaul M, et al (2024) Biological Wastewater Treatment. pp 1–10

[4] Amanna B, Bahri PA, Moheimani NR. Application of computational fluid dynamics in optimizing microalgal photobioreactors. Algal Res, 2024, 83. 103718

[5] Andrews JF. A mathematical model for the continuous culture of microorganisms utilizing inhibitory substrates. Biotechnol Bioeng, 1968, 10: 707-723.

[6] Andriopoulos V, Kornaros M. Microalgal phenolics: systematic review with a focus on methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Mar Drugs, 2024, 22: 460.

[7] Aranda-Vega Y, Bhatt P, Huang J-Y, et al. Biodegradability and bioavailability of dissolved substances in aquaculture effluent: performance of indigenous bacteria, cyanobacteria, and green microalgae. Environ Pollut, 2024, 345. 123468

[8] Barros A, Pereira H, Campos J, et al. Heterotrophy as a tool to overcome the long and costly autotrophic scale-up process for large scale production of microalgae. Sci Rep, 2019, 9. 13935

[9] Bedane DT, Asfaw SL. Microalgae and co-culture for polishing pollutants of anaerobically treated agro-processing industry wastewater: the case of slaughterhouse. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2023, 10. 81

[10] Berryman AA. The origins and evolution of predator-prey theory. Ecology, 1992, 73: 1530-1535.

[11] Bhatt P, Brown PB, Huang J-Y, et al. Algae and indigenous bacteria consortium in treatment of shrimp wastewater: a study for resource recovery in sustainable aquaculture system. Environ Res, 2024, 250. 118447

[12] Bialevich V, Zachleder V, Bišová K. The effect of variable light source and light intensity on the growth of three algal species. Cells, 2022, 11: 1293.

[13] Bilgin H, Aboobacker S, Šipailienė A, et al. Enhancing bioactivity of Chlorella vulgaris through enzymatic pretreatment and lactic acid fermentation. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2026, 13: 50.

[14] Blanco GC, Stablein MJ, Tommaso G. Cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris in anaerobically digested gelatin industry wastewater. Water Supply, 2021, 21: 1953-1965.

[15] Blanken W, Cuaresma M, Wijffels RH, Janssen M. Cultivation of microalgae on artificial light comes at a cost. Algal Res, 2013, 2: 333-340.

[16] Böpple H, Slegers PM, Breuhaus P, Kleinegris DMM. Comparing continuous and perfusion cultivation of microalgae on recirculating aquaculture system effluent water. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 418. 131881

[17] C. SM, Perumalsamy M. Bioremediation of dairy industry wastewater and assessment of nutrient removal potential of Chlorella vulgaris. Biomass Convers Biorefinery, 2024, 14: 10335-10346.

[18] Carbonell Sorí L, Pedraza Garciga J, Carbonell Rivero NA, López Dávila E. Sustainable nutrient removal efficiency, and biomass productivity of Chlorella vulgaris in fish wastewater. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2025, 16: 5317-5331.

[19] Chen C, Tang T, Shi Q, et al. The potential and challenge of microalgae as promising future food sources. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2022, 126: 99-112.

[20] Das A, Kundu P, Adhikari (Nee Pramanik) S (2022) Two stage treatability and biokinetic study of dairy wastewater using bacterial consortium and microalgae. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 43: 102387 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102387

[21] Davis D, Morão A, Johnson JK, Shen L. Life cycle assessment of heterotrophic algae omega-3. Algal Res, 2021, 60. 102494

[22] Dehghan Banadaki F, Nematollahi MA, Ali Jamali H, Hamidi Z. The use of Chlorella vulgaris in reducing the organic load of poultry slaughterhouse wastewater: modeling and optimization of influential factors in the process. Environ Health Eng Manag, 2024, 11: 147-159.

[23] Dhandayuthapani K, Kumar PS, Chia WY, et al. Bioethanol from hydrolysate of ultrasonic processed robust microalgal biomass cultivated in dairy wastewater under optimal strategy. Energy, 2022, 244. 122604

[24] Ding W, Zhou X, He M, et al. Pollutant removal and resource recovery of co-cultivated microalgae Chlorella sp. and Phaeodactylum tricornutum for marine aquaculture wastewater. J Water Process Eng, 2024, 67. 106182

[25] Eriksen NT, Riisgård FK, Gunther WS, Lønsmann Iversen JJ. On-line estimation of O2 production, CO2 uptake, and growth kinetics of microalgal cultures in a gas-tight photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol, 2007, 19: 161-174.

[26] Fernández FGA, Reis A, Wijffels RH, et al. The role of microalgae in the bioeconomy. New Biotechnol, 2021, 61: 99-107.

[27] Freitas GR, Badenes S, Oliveira R, Martins FG. A review of intelligent modeling for microalgae systems: integrating data mining, machine learning, and hybrid approaches. Processes, 2025, 13. 2956

[28] Galang MGK, Chen J, Cobb K, et al. Intelligent predictive modeling for the optimization of advanced algal photobioreactors in greenhouse gas capture and utilization. J Environ Manage, 2025, 381. 125275

[29] Gao F, Peng Y-Y, Li C, et al. Simultaneous nutrient removal and biomass/lipid production by Chlorella sp. in seafood processing wastewater. Sci Total Environ, 2018, 640–641: 943-953.

[30] García-Encinas JP, Ruiz-Cruz S, Juárez J, et al. Proteins from microalgae: nutritional, functional and bioactive properties. Foods, 2025, 14: 921.

[31] Garza-León CV, Correa-Aguado HC, Cerrillo-Rojas GV, et al. Nitrogen deprivation differentially alters lipid accumulation and pyrolysis-derived volatile profiles in three microalgal species. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2026, 13: 115.

[32] Gupta S, Pawar SB. Strategic mixed substrate cultivation of microalgae: productivity, respiration, yield, and lipid quality. J Appl Phycol, 2019, 31: 1573-1588.

[33] Gupta S, Pawar SB, Pandey RA. Current practices and challenges in using microalgae for treatment of nutrient rich wastewater from agro-based industries. Sci Total Environ, 2019, 687: 1107-1126.

[34] Gurreri L, Calanni Rindina M, Luciano A, et al. Microalgae production in an industrial-scale photobioreactors plant: a comprehensive life cycle assessment. Sustain Chem Pharm, 2024, 39. 101598

[35] Huisman J, Jonker RR, Zonneveld C, Weissing FJ. Competition for light between phytoplankton species: experimental tests of mechanistic theory. Ecology, 1999, 80: 211-222.

[36] Huisman J, Pham Thi NN, Karl DM, Sommeijer B. Reduced mixing generates oscillations and chaos in the oceanic deep chlorophyll maximum. Nature, 2006, 439: 322-325.

[37] Imamoglu E. Artificial intelligence and/or machine learning algorithms in microalgae bioprocesses. Bioengineering (Basel), 2024, 11. 1143

[38] Jiang M, Cao X, Wang Z, et al. A kinetic-assisted growth curve prediction method for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii incorporating transfer learning. Bioresour Technol, 2024, 394. 130246

[39] Jorge N, Teixeira AR, Fernandes JR, et al. Degradation of agro-industrial wastewater model compound by UV-A-Fenton process: batch vs. continuous mode. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2023, 20. 1276

[40] Joseph TA, Shenhav L, Xavier JB, et al. Compositional Lotka-Volterra describes microbial dynamics in the simplex. PLoS Comput Biol, 2020, 16. e1007917

[41] Karabulut G, Purkiewicz A, Goksen G. Recent developments and challenges in algal protein and peptide extraction strategies, functional and technological properties, bioaccessibility, and commercial applications. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 2024, 23. e13372

[42] Kaur S, Sharma A, Bala S, et al. Microalgae in the food-health nexus: exploring species diversity, high-value bioproducts, health benefits, and sustainable market potential. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 427. 132424

[43] Kim M, Lee S-A, Yun J-H, et al. Cultivation of Chlorella sp. HS2 using wastewater from soy sauce factory. Chemosphere, 2023, 342. 140162

[44] Kothari R, Azam R, Singh HM, et al. Nutrients sequestration from slaughterhouse wastewater with kinetic model studies using C. vulgaris for lipid production and reduction in freshwater footprint: a synergistic approach. Waste Biomass Valoriz, 2024, 15: 1807-1818.

[45] Kumari S, Kumar V, Kothari R, Kumar P. Experimental and optimization studies on phycoremediation of dairy wastewater and biomass production efficiency of Chlorella vulgaris isolated from Ganga River, Haridwar, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2022, 29: 74643-74654.

[46] Lalonde JN, Circi D, Marrone BL, et al. Challenges and vision for standardization of biopolymer data sets for machine learning. Biomacromol, 2026, 27: 4059-4080.

[47] Lee Y-J, Yi Y-C, Lin Y-C, et al. Purification and biofabrication of 5-aminolevulinic acid for photodynamic therapy against pathogens and cancer cells. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2022, 9. 68

[48] Leupold M, Hindersin S, Gust G, et al. Influence of mixing and shear stress on Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus obliquus, and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. J Appl Phycol, 2013, 25: 485-495.

[49] Long B, Fischer B, Zeng Y, et al. Machine learning-informed and synthetic biology-enabled semi-continuous algal cultivation to unleash renewable fuel productivity. Nat Commun, 2022, 13. 541

[50] Lopez AM, Savage S, Zhou Z. Novel machine learning unlocks high lipid productivity and resolves trade-offs in algal biofuel production. Renew Energy, 2026, 256. 123901

[51] López-Pacheco IY, Carrillo-Nieves D, Salinas-Salazar C, et al. Combination of nejayote and swine wastewater as a medium for Arthrospira maxima and Chlorella vulgaris production and wastewater treatment. Sci Total Environ, 2019, 676: 356-367.

[52] Lu Q, Zhou X, Liu R, et al. Impacts of a bacterial algicide on metabolic pathways in Chlorella vulgaris. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 2023, 249. 114451

[53] Ma R, Zhang Z, Tang Z, et al. Enhancement of co-production of lutein and protein in Chlorella sorokiniana FZU60 using different bioprocess operation strategies. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2021, 8: 82.

[54] Ma X, Mi Y, Zhao C, Wei Q. A comprehensive review on carbon source effect of microalgae lipid accumulation for biofuel production. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 806. 151387

[55] Maltsev Y, Kulikovskiy M, Maltseva S. Nitrogen and phosphorus stress as a tool to induce lipid production in microalgae. Microb Cell Fact, 2023, 22. 239

[56] Monod J. The growth of bacterial cultures. Annu Rev Microbiol, 1949, 3: 371-394.

[57] Najar-Almanzor CE, Velasco-Iglesias KD, Solis-Bañuelos M, et al. Chlorella vulgaris-mediated bioremediation of food and beverage wastewater from industries in Mexico: results and perspectives towards sustainability and circular economy. Sci Total Environ, 2024, 940. 173753

[58] Nasir NM, Jusoh A, Harun R, et al. Nutrient consumption of green microalgae, Chlorella sp. during the bioremediation of shrimp aquaculture wastewater. Algal Res, 2023, 72. 103110

[59] Norsker N-H, Barbosa MJ, Vermuë MH, Wijffels RH. Microalgal production — a close look at the economics. Biotechnol Adv, 2011, 29: 24-27.

[60] Nzayiramya S, Muhammad A, Baffoe-Bonnie A. A global assessment of food and non-food spending: evidence from 173 countries and implications for food security. Agric Food Secur, 2025, 14. 20

[61] Padri M, Boontian N, Latief MM, et al. Application of syntrophic co-culture Chlorella sorokiniana and Streptomyces thermocarboxydus in semi-continuous system for cassava wastewater treatment and biomass production. Green Technol Sustain, 2025, 3. 100168

[62] Padri M, Boontian N, Piasai C. Comparison of single strain, natural algal communities and a native algal bloom: application for wastewater treatment and biomass generation in cassava biogas effluent. Water Environ J, 2022, 36: 679-693.

[63] Palafox-Sola MF, Yebra-Montes C, Orozco-Nunnelly DA, et al. Modeling growth kinetics and community interactions in microalgal cultures for bioremediation of anaerobically digested swine wastewater. Algal Res, 2023, 70. 102981

[64] Patel AK, Joun JM, Hong ME, Sim SJ. Effect of light conditions on mixotrophic cultivation of green microalgae. Bioresour Technol, 2019, 282: 245-253.

[65] Pekkoh J, Wichaphian A, Kamngoen A, et al. Heterotrophic upcycling of hydroponic wastewater supplemented with glucose and indole-3-acetic acid into high-quality Chlorella biomass for zero-waste multiproduct microalgal biorefinery. Environ Technol Innov, 2024, 36. 103813

[66] Pérez-Guzmán SM, Hernández-Aguilar E, Alvarado-Lassman A, Méndez-Contreras JM. Kinetics of obtaining microalgal biomass and removal of organic contaminants in photobioreactors operated with microalgae—study case: treatment of wastewater from a poultry slaughterhouse. Water, 2024, 16. 1558

[67] Picknell KJ, Poddar N, McCauley JI, et al. Whole cell microalgae: potential to transform industry waste into sustainable ruminant feed. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 430. 132547

[68] Quiroz D, McGowen JA, Quinn JC. Techno-economic analysis of microalgae cultivation strategies: batch and semi-continuous approaches. Algal Res, 2025, 90. 104109

[69] Roy C, Sen P, Vurimindi H. Kinetic modeling and experiments on removal of COD/nutrients from dairy effluent using chlorella and co-culture. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 2023, 46: 1099-1110.

[70] Ruiz J, Álvarez-Díaz PD, Arbib Z, et al. Performance of a flat panel reactor in the continuous culture of microalgae in urban wastewater: prediction from a batch experiment. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 127: 456-463.

[71] Safi C, Zebib B, Merah O, et al. Morphology, composition, production, processing and applications of Chlorella vulgaris: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2014, 35: 265-278.

[72] Serejo ML, Ruas G, Braga GB, et al. Chlorella vulgaris growth on anaerobically digested sugarcane vinasse: influence of turbidity. An Acad Bras Cienc, 2021, 93. e20190084

[73] Silva DA, Cardoso LG, de Jesus Silva JS, et al. Strategy for the cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris with high biomass production and biofuel potential in wastewater from the oil industry. Environ Technol Innov, 2022, 25. 102204

[74] Širić I, Abou Fayssal S, Adelodun B, et al. Sustainable use of CO₂ and wastewater from mushroom farm for Chlorella vulgaris cultivation: experimental and kinetic studies on algal growth and pollutant removal. Horticulturae (Basel), 2023, 9. 308

[75] Sriket N, Wichaphian A, Kamngoen A, et al. Hydroponic effluent recycling and resource recovery using heterotrophic Chlorella microalgae: advancing a circular bioeconomy. J Water Process Eng, 2024, 67. 106176

[76] Sumanasekara H, Jayasingha H, Amarasooriya G, et al. Hybrid machine learning models for predicting the impact of light wavelengths on algal growth in freshwater ecosystems. Phycologia, 2025, 5: 23.

[77] Sun H, Wang Y, He Y, et al. Microalgae-derived pigments for the food industry. Mar Drugs, 2023, 21: 82.

[78] Tam NFY, Wong YS. Effect of ammonia concentrations on growth of Chlorella vulgaris and nitrogen removal from media. Bioresour Technol, 1996, 57: 45-50.

[79] Tan X-B, Wan X-P, Yang L-B, et al. Nutrients recycling and biomass production from Chlorella pyrenoidosa culture using anaerobic food processing wastewater in a pilot-scale tubular photobioreactor. Chemosphere, 2021, 270. 129459

[80] Tan X-B, Zhao X-C, Zhang Y-L, et al. Enhanced lipid and biomass production using alcohol wastewater as carbon source for Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultivation in anaerobically digested starch wastewater in outdoors. Bioresour Technol, 2018, 247: 784-793.

[81] Tang J, Sun Z, Zhang Z, et al. Machine learning for optimizing biomass and high-value metabolite production in microalgal biotechnology: a review. Algal Res, 2026, 95. 104606

[82] Tec-Campos D, Kumar M, Parra N, et al. Predictive algal systems biology: integrating omics, genome-scale metabolic models, and machine learning. Bioengineering (Basel), 2026, 13: 633.

[83] Toumpe I, Choudhury S, Hatzimanikatis V, Miskovic L. The dawn of high-throughput and genome-scale kinetic modeling: recent advances and future directions. ACS Synth Biol, 2025, 14: 2906-2919.

[84] Trovão M, Barros A, Machado A, et al. Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris yellow mutant on sidestreams: medium formulation and process scale-up. J Environ Chem Eng, 2025, 13. 115361

[85] Van Den Hende S, Beelen V, Bore G, et al. Up-scaling aquaculture wastewater treatment by microalgal bacterial flocs: from lab reactors to an outdoor raceway pond. Bioresour Technol, 2014, 159: 342-354.

[86] Wood V, Jeffryes M, Green AF, et al. Empowering biological knowledgebases: advances in human-in-the-loop AI-driven literature curation. Bioinformatics Adv, 2026, 6. vbag028

[87] Yaakob MA, Mohamed RM, Al-Gheethi A, et al. Influence of nitrogen and phosphorus on microalgal growth, biomass, lipid, and fatty acid production: an overview. Cells (Basel), 2021, 10. 393

[88] Yeh K-L, Chang J-S. Effects of cultivation conditions and media composition on cell growth and lipid productivity of indigenous microalga Chlorella vulgaris ESP-31. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 105: 120-127.

[89] Yeh Y-C, Syed T, Brinitzer G, et al. Improving microalgae growth modeling of outdoor cultivation with light history data using machine learning models: a comparative study. Bioresour Technol, 2023, 390. 129882

[90] Zabochnicka M, Krzywonos M, Romanowska-Duda Z, et al. Algal biomass utilization toward circular economy. Life (Basel), 2022, 12. 1480

[91] Zhao L, Tang J, Xu Y, et al. A vertical-flow constructed wetland–microalgal membrane photobioreactor integrated system for treating high-pollution-load marine aquaculture wastewater: a lab-scale study. Sci Total Environ, 2024, 919. 170465

[92] Zwietering MH, Jongenburger I, Rombouts FM, van Riet K. Modeling of the bacterial growth curve. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1990, 56: 1875-1881.

Rights & permissions

The Author(s)