Biomachining in manufacturing: mechanisms, processes, applications and future perspectives

Abstract

Biomachining (BM) is an emerging bio-assisted manufacturing approach that uses microbial metabolism and bioelectrochemical reactions to remove material under mild conditions. Due to its low mechanical loading and limited thermal effects, BM has potential in low-damage microfabrication, surface functionalization, microfluidic mold fabrication, abrasive tool dressing, and functional device modification. This review critically summarizes BM with respect to removal mechanisms, process technologies, modeling and optimization strategies, manufacturing applications, and engineering challenges. The biological and electrochemical mechanisms of BM are discussed first, followed by conventional and hybrid BM processes and their comparison with conventional and non-conventional machining technologies. Current applications are reviewed with emphasis on the gap between laboratory demonstrations and scalable industrial implementation. Major challenges include low removal efficiency, limited dimensional accuracy, unstable microbial activity, weak process controllability, contamination risk, waste treatment, and biosafety management. Future development should focus on standardized evaluation, microbial stability control, mechanism-data fusion modeling, hybrid process intensification, and dedicated equipment. Machine learning-assisted prediction, Internet of Things-enabled monitoring, digital twin-based closed-loop control, and sustainability/techno-economic validation are also important for moving BM toward controllable and scalable manufacturing.

Keywords

Biomachining / Material removal mechanisms / Bioelectrochemical dissolution / Hybrid biomachining / Microfabrication / Process optimization

References

[1] Behera BC. Citric acid from : a comprehensive overview. Crit Rev Microbiol, 2020, 46: 727-749.

[2] Bijimol BI, Sreelekshmy BR, Geethanjali CV, Aboobakar Shibli SM. Advanced bio-patterned anodes for exceptional output in microbial fuel cells. Chem Eng J, 2025, 503. 158369

[3] Catherine AFL, Priyanka V, Nandhini B, Jagannathan S, Suresh B. Microbiologically influenced corrosion dynamics and technological innovations in monitoring and control. J Microbiol Methods, 2026, 243. 107432

[4] Chang JH, Hocheng H, Chang HY, Shih A. Metal removal rate of without pre-secreted metabolite. J Mater Process Technol, 2008, 201: 560-564.

[5] Chavoshi SZ, Luo X. Hybrid micro-machining processes: a review. Precis Eng, 2015, 41: 1-23.

[6] Díaz-Tena E, Rodríguez-Ezquerro A, López De Lacalle Marcaide LN, Gurtubay Bustinduy L, Elías Sáenz A. A sustainable process for material removal on pure copper by use of extremophile bacteria. J Clean Prod, 2014, 84: 752-760.

[7] Díaz-Tena E, Gallastegui G, Hipperdinger M, Donati ER, Ramírez M, Rodríguez A, López De Lacalle LN, Elías A. New advances in copper biomachining by iron-oxidizing bacteria. Corros Sci, 2016, 112: 385-392.

[8] Díaz-Tena E, Barona A, Gallastegui G, Rodriguez A, Lopez DLL, Elias A. Biomachining: metal etching via microorganisms. Crit Rev Biotechnol, 2017, 37: 323-332.

[9] Díaz-Tena E, Rojo N, Gurtubay L, Rodriguez-Ezquerro A, Lopez DLL, Oyanguren I, Barbero F, Elias A. Biomachining: preservation of and treatment of the liquid residue. Eng Life Sci, 2017, 17: 382-391.

[10] Díaz-Tena E, Gallastegui G, Hipperdinger M, Donati ER, Rojo N, Santaolalla A, Ramirez M, Barona A, Elías A. Simultaneous culture and biomachining of copper in MAC medium: a comparison between and. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2018, 6: 17026-17034.

[11] Elander BE, Jiang M, Fahrenbruch M, Li W, Momeni B, Wang D. Recycling Li-ion battery cathode materials in iron-fueled, low-sulfate cultures of. ACS Sustain Resour Manag, 2025, 2: 1760-1768.

[12] Eskandarian M, Karimi A, Shabgard M. Studies on enzymatic biomachining of copper by glucose oxidase. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng, 2013, 44: 331-335.

[13] Farooq MU, Bhatti HA, Asad M, Kumar MS, Zahoor S, Khan AM. Surface generation on titanium alloy through powder-mixed electric discharge machining with the focus on bioimplant applications. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 2022, 122: 1395-1411.

[14] Ge J, Isgor OB. Effects of tafel slope, exchange current density and electrode potential on the corrosion of steel in concrete. Mater Corros, 2007, 58: 573-582.

[15] Hemalatha B, Rajeswari B, Sekar T, Rajasekar V (2021) Experimental studies on biomachining of copper and its behavioural characteristics. In: Mohan S, Rajeshkumar G, Shankar S (eds) Materials, design, and manufacturing for sustainable environment, Coimbatore, March 2020. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 49–56.

[16] Hocheng H, Jadhav U. Nee AYC. Process of biological machining. Handbook of manufacturing engineering and technology, 20151st ednLondonSpringer

[17] Hocheng H, Chang JH, Hsu HS, Han HJ, Chang YL, Jadhav UU. Metal removal by through cells and extra-cellular culture supernatant in biomachining. CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol, 2012, 5: 137-141.

[18] Hocheng H, Chang JH, Jadhav UU. Micromachining of various metals by using 13820 culture supernatant experiments. J Clean Prod, 2012, 20: 180-185.

[19] Hocheng H, Jadhav UU, Chang JH. Biomachining rates of various metals by. Int J Surf Sci Eng, 2012, 6: 101-111.

[20] Hocheng H, Su C, Jadhav UU. Bioleaching of metals from steel slag by culture supernatant. Chemosph, 2014, 117: 652-657.

[21] Hocheng H, Jadhav UU (2011) Novel sustainable metal removal by biologically produced ferric sulphate. In: IEEE (ed) 2nd international conference on digital manufacturing & automation, Zhangjiajie, August 2011. International Conference on Digital Manufacturing and Automation. IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, pp 784–787.

[22] Hoque ME, Philip OJ. Biotechnological recovery of heavy metals from secondary sources—an overview. Mater Sci Eng C, 2011, 31: 57-66.

[23] Imran M, Saragih AS, Sahar MSU, Ko TJ. Digital maskless lithography capabilities for surface texturing with biomachining. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 2017, 89: 3709-3719.

[24] Ince FD, Özel TR. Laser surface texturing of materials for surface functionalization: a holistic review. Surf Coat Technol, 2025, 498. 131818

[25] Indianto MA, Santoso I, Istiyanto J, Ko TJ. Optimizing biomachining material removal rate through oxygen addition to the bacteria’s culture by an air supply system. Int J Precis Eng Manuf, 2023, 24: 2239-2247.

[26] Isoko K, Cordiner JL, Kis Z, Moghadam PZ. Bioprocessing 4.0: a pragmatic review and future perspectives. Digit Discov, 2024, 3: 1662-1681.

[27] Istiyanto J, Kim MY, Ko TJ. Profile characteristics of biomachined copper. Microelectron Eng, 2011, 88: 2614-2617.

[28] Istiyanto J, Saragih AS, Ko TJ. Metal based micro-feature fabrication using biomachining process. Microelectron Eng, 2012, 98: 561-565.

[29] Istiyanto J, Taufiqurrakhman M, Kiswanto G, Santoso I, Ko TJ. Inclination angle effect on surface of copper in biomachining. Appl Mech Mater, 2014, 660: 23-27.

[30] Istiyanto J, Muhadiyantoro D, Whulanza Y, Suwarno, Djanali VS, Pramujati B, Yartys VA (2017) Modification of surface roughness for a narrow path microfluidic application. In: Suwarno, Djanali V, Pramujati B, Yartys V (eds) 3rd International Conference on Mechanical Engineering, Surabaya, October 2018. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol 1983. AIP Publishing, Melville, p 40012.

[31] Jadhav U, Hocheng H. Extraction of silver from spent silver oxide–zinc button cells by using culture supernatant. J Clean Prod, 2013, 44: 39-44.

[32] Jadhav U, Hocheng H. Use of 34770 culture supernatant for tin metal removal. Corros Sci, 2014, 82: 248-254.

[33] Jadhav U, Hocheng H. Enzymatic bioleaching of metals from printed circuit board. Clean Technol Environ Policy, 2015, 17: 947-956.

[34] Jadhav U, Hocheng H. Study of and enzymatic bio-fenton process mediated corrosion of copper-nickel alloy. Environ Technol, 2016, 37: 2669-2677.

[35] Jadhav UU, Hocheng H, Weng WH. Innovative use of biologically produced ferric sulfate for machining of copper metal and study of specific metal removal rate and surface roughness during the process. J Mater Process Technol, 2013, 213: 1509-1515.

[36] Jhajj TS, Sodhi AK, Bhanot N (2018) A comparative study on application of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Aspergillus niger for biomachining of EN-19 alloy steel. In: Singh H, Garg P, Kaur I (eds) 1st International Conference on Sustainable Waste Management through Design, Ludhiana, November 2018. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Springer, Cham, pp 323–335.

[37] Johnson D, Warner R, Shih AJ. Surface roughness and material removal rate in machining using microorganisms. J Manuf Sci Eng, 2007, 129: 223-227.

[38] Kikuchi Y, Tohmoto K, Ozawa M, Kanamaru T (1999) Microbiologically influenced corrosion of copper in ground water. Corrosion 1999, San Antonio, April 1999. In: Proceedings of the CORROSION 1999. NACE International, Houston, p 140.

[39] Knisz J, Eckert R, Gieg LM, Koerdt A, Lee JS, Silva ER, Skovhus TL, An Stepec BA, Wade SA. Microbiologically influenced corrosion - more than just microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 2023, 47. fuad041

[40] Kohn S, Wanielik F, Arafat R, Juraschek M, Herrmann C. Biologicalisation of surface structuring: comparative environmental assessment of microbial biomachining vs. chemical etching. Procedia CIRP, 2024, 125: 142-147.

[41] Kumada M, Kawakado T, Kobuchi S, Uno Y, Maeda S, Miyuki H. Investigations of fine biomachining of metals by using microbially influenced corrosion. Zairyo Kankyo, 2001, 50: 411-417.

[42] Kuriachen B. Influence of surface texture of electric discharge machined Ti6Al4V on the surface wettability. Precis Eng, 2024, 86: 317-330.

[43] Kurosaki Y, Matsui M, Nakamura Y, Murai K, Kimura T. Material processing using microorganisms. JSME Int J Ser C, 2003, 1: 322-330.

[44] Lesi W, Wang Z, Wuliji H, Shan F, Muri N, Qu J, Yaer X. Microcrack mechanisms and inhibition strategies in selective laser melting of Ni-based superalloys. J Alloys Compd, 2025, 1034. 181343

[45] Li Y, Zhang D, Wu Y. Biomachining of metal copper by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Acta Microbiol Sin, 2000, 40: 327-330.

[46] Li Y, Xu D, Chen C, Li X, Jia R, Zhang D, Sand W, Wang F, Gu T. Anaerobic microbiologically influenced corrosion mechanisms interpreted using bioenergetics and bioelectrochemistry: a review. J Mater Sci Technol, 2018, 34: 1713-1718.

[47] Li Z, Feng P, Zhang J, Yu D, Wu K, Ding P, Wang J. Highly efficient boiling heat transfer of copper surface with sub-10 µm channels fabricated by elliptical vibration chiseling. Appl Therm Eng, 2025, 270. 126260

[48] Lilova K, Karamanev D, Flemming RL, Karamaneva T. Biological oxidation of metallic copper by. Biotechnol Bioeng, 2007, 97: 308-316.

[49] Lin W, Huang H, Ma F. Analysis of the removal mechanism of ferroalloy by. Procedia CIRP, 2022, 110: 14-19.

[50] Lin W, Huang H, Shi W, Ma F, Li T, Macleod I. Effect of jet velocity on metal removal ability of a biomachining solution and its mechanism. J Clean Prod, 2024, 434. 140429

[51] Lin W, Song J, Shi W, Wu T, Huang H. Precision and sustainable grinding of SiC through : enhancing iron-based diamond grinding wheel performance with biological in-process dressing. J Mater Res Technol, 2026, 41: 3414-3424.

[52] Liu Y, Wang X, Yang Y, Shi W. Processing micro-gear based on bio-etching method. Appl Mech Mater, 2009, 16–19: 120-123.

[53] Liu Y, Zheng H, Zhou Y, Wang M, Liu J, Zhang D, Zhang L. Electrochemical behaviour of L-cysteine on massive chalcopyrite (CuFeS) bioleached by. Int J Electrochem Sci, 2019, 14: 9682-9694.

[54] Liu D, Zhong W, Zeng W, Jiang X. Advances on the mechanical robustness of superhydrophobic surfaces: strategies, fabrication, and test. Precis Eng, 2026, 99: 186-213.

[55] Liu Y, Shi W, Xiao J, Song J, Duan N, Liao X, Huang H, Boër CR. Mask-assisted jet biomachining of superhydrophobic H62 brass surfaces with enhanced corrosion resistance: process optimization and performance evaluation. Surf Interfaces, 2026, 91. 109277

[56] Ma F, Huang H. Galvanic corrosion of powder sintered component and improvement of material removal rate for biomachining. Procedia CIRP, 2020, 89: 164-169.

[57] Ma F, Huang H. Experimental research on the biological in-process dressing (BID) of Cu-Co matrix diamond tools. J Clean Prod, 2020, 275. 124070

[58] Ma F, Huang H, Xu X. State overview and technology analysis of biomachining. China Mech Eng, 2019, 30: 577-585.

[59] Ma F, Huang H, Cui C. Biomachining properties of various metals by microorganisms. J Mater Process Technol, 2020, 278. 116512

[60] Ma F, Huang H, Xu X. Material removal mechanisms of Cu-Co metal-powder composite by microorganisms. Int J Precis Eng Manuf-Green Technol, 2020, 7: 975-986.

[61] Ma F, Zheng M, Huang H, Xu G, Li Y, Xiong W, Yang Y. Simplification of the culture process for expanding the field of biomachining. ACS Omega, 2024, 9: 30998-31005.

[62] Ma F, Zheng M, Huang H, Lin W, Xu G, Xiong W. Biological in-process dressing (BID) performance of iron fixed abrasive pad in sapphire wafer lapping. Ceram Int, 2025, 51: 37960-37968.

[63] Ma F, Zheng M, Huang H, San Y, Xiong W, Yang Y. Application research status and prospect of biomachining in the manufacturing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 2025, 139: 1-13.

[64] Maharana HS, Murty SVSN, Ramkumar J, Mondal K. Continuous and ordered surface microtexturing on Cu and Ni-based alloys by novel electrochemical dissolution. J Alloys Compd, 2020, 817. 153263

[65] Matlani U, Kadam GS. Shunmugam MS, Prasanth AS, Ramesh R, Doloi B. Investigations on bio-machining of brass using Staphylococcus aureus. Advances in modern machining processes, 2021, Singapore: Springer, 411-420

[66] Miyano Y, Shikata S, Ozawa M, Sreekumari KR, Kikuchi Y. Micro etching process of metals using microbial metabolic reaction (I): application of microbiologically influenced corrosion of metallic copper to material processing. Tetsu Hagane, 2006, 4: 274-279.

[67] Mondal PP, Galodha A, Verma VK, Singh V, Show PL, Awasthi MK, Lall B, Anees S, Pollmann K, Jain R. Review on machine learning-based bioprocess optimization, monitoring, and control systems. Bioresour Technol, 2023, 370. 128523

[68] Muhammad I, Sana Ullah SM, Han DS, Ko TJ. Selection of optimum process parameters of biomachining for maximum metal removal rate. Int J Precis Eng Manuf-Green Technol, 2015, 2: 307-313.

[69] Muhammad I, Khatoon T, Ullah SMS, Ko TJ. Development of empirical model for biomachining to improve machinability and surface roughness of polycrystalline copper. Int J Precis Eng Manuf-Green Technol, 2018, 5: 201-209.

[70] Muhammad I, Ko TJ (2014) Escalation of metal removal rate of biomachining by controlling various process parameters. In: Engineering KSOP (ed) Korean Society of Precision Engineering Conference, Seoul, October 2014. Proceedings of the Korean Society of Precision Engineering Conference. Korean Society of Precision Engineering, Seoul, pp 141–142.

[71] Naseri T, Beiki V, Mousavi SM, Farnaud S. A comprehensive review of bioleaching optimization by statistical approaches: recycling mechanisms, factors affecting, challenges, and sustainability. RSC Adv, 2023, 13: 23570-23589.

[72] Pradeep M, Shanmugavel R, Uthayakumar M, Muthulakshmi L, Adam Khan M, Thiagamani SMK, Rangappa SM, Siengchin S. Experimental studies on biomachining process using novel microorganism - a comparative study. Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2022, 14: 12911-12920.

[73] Pradeep M, Rajesh S, Uthayakumar M, Mathalai Sundaram C, Korniejenko K, Miernik K, Majid MSA. Experimental investigation on bio-machining of nickel, titanium and nitinol (shape memory alloys) using microorganisms. J Compos Sci, 2023, 7: 262.

[74] Pradeep M, Rajesh S, Uthayakumar M, Sivaranjana P, Syath Abuthakeer S, Ravichandran M, Thiagamani SMK, Mavinkere Rangappa S, Siengchin S. Investigations on the combined effects of microorganism and process parameters on the bio-machining of NiTi. Biomass Convers Biorefin, 2024, 14: 15419-15428.

[75] Qosim N, Supriadi S, Istiyanto J, Saragih AS, Whulanza Y, Hu J, Ahn J (2018) Surface characteristics of Ti6Al4V-EDM implant engineered by PVD coated-etching and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans based-biomachining. In: Hu J (ed) 5th International Conference on Advanced Materials, Structures and Mechanical Engineering, Incheon, May 2018. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol 2008. AIP Publishing, Melville, p 20005

[76] Quatrini R, Johnson DB. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. Trends Microbiol, 2019, 27: 282-283.

[77] Revilla RI, Baert K, De Graeve I. Synergistic effect of microstructure and etching on surface chemistry, passivity, and corrosion resistance of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel. Corros Sci, 2025, 255. 113147

[78] Santaolalla A, Rojo N, Gutierrez J, Barona A. Immobilization of on two hydrogels. Chem Eng Trans, 2020, 79: 7-12.

[79] Santaolalla A, Gutierrez J, Gallastegui G, Barona A, Rojo N. Immobilization of in bacterial cellulose for a more sustainable bioleaching process. J Environ Chem Eng, 2021, 9. 105283

[80] Santaolalla A, Alvarez-Braña Y, Barona A, Basabe-Desmonts L, Benito-Lopez F, Rojo N. Sustainable mold biomachining for the manufacturing of microfluidic devices. J Ind Eng Chem, 2023, 120: 332-339.

[81] Santaolalla A, Rojo N, Barona A, Gallastegui G. Cyclic biomachining of copper: maximum metal removal rate with minimum depleted solution. Miner Eng, 2024, 217. 108944

[82] Santaolalla A, Gutierrez J, Barona A, Rojo N. Support selection and application to improve biomachining efficiency. J Basque Ctry Univ Sci Technol, 2025, 47: 389-406.

[83] Saragih AS, Ko TJ. Development of digital lithography masking method with focusing mechanism for fabrication of micro-feature on biomachining process. J Mech Sci Technol, 2013, 27: 3017-3022.

[84] Shariatifar M, Rizi MS, Sotudeh-Gharebagh R, Zarghami R, Mostoufi N. On digital twins in bioprocessing: opportunities and limitations. Process Biochem, 2025, 156: 274-299.

[85] Shikata S, Sreekumari KR, Nandakumar K, Ozawa M, Kikuchi Y. Laboratory studies on biomachining of copper using sp. Biofouling, 2009, 25: 557-562.

[86] Shokrani A, Arrazola PJ, Biermann D, Mativenga P, Jawahir IS. Sustainable machining: recent technological advances. CIRP Ann, 2024, 73: 483-508.

[87] Singh A, Arul Manikandan N, Ravi Sankar M, Pakshirajan K, Roy L. Experimental investigations and surface morphology of bio-micromachining on copper. Mater Today Proc, 2018, 5: 4225-4234.

[88] Singh A, Manikandan A, Sankar MR, Pakshirajan K, Roy L (2019) Empirical modelling and optimisation of bio-micromachining on antimicrobial copper to fabricate micromixing system. In: Shunmugam MS, Kanthababu M (eds) All India Manufacturing Technology, Design and Research Conference, Chennai, May 2018. Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 661–670

[89] Song J, Huang H, Wang X, Shi W. Status and prospects of surface texturing: design, manufacturing and applications. Surf Sci Technol, 2023, 1: 21.

[90] Song J, Huang H, Shi W, Wang X, Zhong W, Zeng W, Lin W. Mask-assisted jet biomachining based on and its application in functional friction surfaces. Bioresour Technol, 2025, 431. 132642

[91] Sonia, Sodhi AK, Bhanot N (2021) Biomachining of aluminum alloy 46500 using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. In: Garg P, Singh H, Singh Cheema PP (eds) Sustainable Development through Innovations, Ludhiana, September 2020. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 567–579

[92] Suresh A, Abraham J, Shetty M, Oyyaravelu R, Abraham J. Biomachining: a sustainable alternative to conventional micromachining techniques - a comprehensive review. Mikrobiol Zh, 2025, 87: 83-98.

[93] Suwandi D, Whulanza Y, Istiyanto J. Visible light maskless photolithography for biomachining application. Appl Mech Mater, 2014, 493: 552-557.

[94] Taufiqurrakhman M, Istiyanto J, Putra N. Application of biomachining on copper for a minichannel heat exchanger. Therm Sci Eng Prog, 2021, 26. 101128

[95] Tezyapar Kara I, Kremser K, Wagland ST, Coulon F. Bioleaching metal-bearing wastes and by-products for resource recovery: a review. Environ Chem Lett, 2023, 21: 3329-3350.

[96] Ting YP, Kumar AS, Rahman M, Chia BK. Innovative use of for the biological machining of metals. Acta Biotechnol, 2000, 20: 87-96.

[97] Uno Y, Kaneeda T, Yokomizo S. Fundamental study on biomachining machining of metals by. JSME Int J Ser C, 1996, 4: 837-842.

[98] Verma P, Sodhi AK, Bhanot N (2018) A study on biomachining of aluminium alloy 4004 using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. In: Garg P, Singh H, Kaur I (eds) 1st International Conference on Sustainable Waste Management through Design, Ludhiana, November 2018. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Springer, Cham, pp 45–50

[99] Vigneshwaran SCS, Ramakrishnan R, Arun Prakash C, Sashank C (2018) Biomachining—a new approach for micromachining of metals. In: Mohan Kumar GC (ed) Advances in Mechanical Design, Materials and Manufacture, Karnataka, January 2018. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol 1943. AIP Publishing, Melville, p 020059

[100] Wang H, Ju LK, Castaneda H, Cheng G, Zhang Newby BM. Corrosion of carbon steel C1010 in the presence of iron oxidizing bacteria. Corros Sci, 2014, 89: 250-257.

[101] Whulanza Y, Nadhif H, Istiyanto J, Supriadi S, Bachtiar B. PDMS surface modification using biomachining method for biomedical application. J Biomim Biomater Biomed Eng, 2016, 26: 66-72.

[102] Xenofontos E, Feidiou A, Constantinou M, Constantinides G, Vyrides I. Copper biomachining mechanisms using the newly isolated B1. Corros Sci, 2015, 100: 642-650.

[103] Yang Y, Wang XB, Liu YD, Wang S, Wen W. Techniques for micromachining using based on different culture medium. Appl Mech Mater, 2009, 16–19: 1053-1057.

[104] Zhang D, Li Y. Possibility of biological micromachining used for metal removal. Sci China Ser C Life Sci, 1998, 41: 151-156.

[105] Zhang D, Li Y. Studies on kinetics and thermodynamics of biomachining pure copper. Sci China Ser C Life Sci, 1999, 42: 57-62.

[106] Zhang Z, Yu H, Zhang Y, Yang K, Li W, Chen Z, Zhang G. Analysis and optimization of process energy consumption and environmental impact in electrical discharge machining of titanium superalloys. J Clean Prod, 2018, 198: 833-846.

[107] Zhang T, Wang J, Zhang G, Liu H. The corrosion promoting mechanism of on 5083 aluminum alloy and inhibition performance of miconazole nitrate. Corros Sci, 2020, 176. 108930

[108] Zhu D, Zuo P, Li F, Tian H, Liu T, Hu L, Huang H, Liu J, Qian X. Fabrication and applications of surface micro/nanostructures by femtosecond laser. Colloid Interface Sci Commun, 2024, 59. 100770

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52275427)

Programme of Introducing Talents of Discipline to Universities(B23011)

Natural Science Foundation of Xiamen(3502Z202671032)

Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(ZQN-1105)

Rights & permissions

The Author(s)