Application of heterogeneous catalysts in the preparation of bio-based platform compound 5-hydroxymethylfurfural

Abstract

In recent years, there has been growing attention towards developing renewable energy and materials derived from abundant biomass resources. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is recognized as a promising bio-based platform compound for synthesizing value-added chemicals and materials due to its versatile reactivity. HMF can be directly synthesized from carbohydrates and various raw biomass through the acid-hydrolysis reaction. Heterogeneous catalysts have gained prominence in biomass conversion owing to their environmental friendliness, facile separation from reaction mixtures, high catalytic efficiency, and reduced corrosivity toward equipment. This review systematically examines the reaction pathways and mechanisms involved in HMF synthesis from fructose, glucose, cellulose, and raw biomass using heterogeneous catalysts. Then we give an introduction to the preparation of furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) from HMF with different catalytic methods. FDCA is an important degradable bio-material monomer for polyethylene furanoate to replace petroleum-based polyethylene terephthalate. This review ends with a prospect on the challenges and opportunities of HMF synthesis in the near future.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural / Platform compound / Catalytic conversion / Heterogeneous catalyst / Chemical Sciences / Macromolecular and Materials Chemistry

References

[1] AranhaDJ, KiningeMM, GogatePR. Intensification of fructose dehydration into 5-HMF and subsequent oxidation to 2,5-FDCA using ultrasound. Can J Chem Eng, 2025, 1032786-798.

[2] AtandaL, MukundanS, ShrotriA, MaQ, BeltraminiJ. Catalytic conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethyl-furfural with a phosphated TiO₂ catalyst. ChemCatChem, 2015, 75781-790.

[3] AtandaL, ShrotriA, MukundanS, MaQ, KonarovaM, BeltraminiJ. Direct production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural via catalytic conversion of simple and complex sugars over phosphated TiO₂. Chemsuschem, 2015, 8172907-2916.

[4] BaiC, HouQ, BaiX, NieY, QianH, ZhenM, JuM. Conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural at high substrate loading: effect of catalyst and solvent on the stability of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Energy Fuels, 2020, 341216240-16249.

[5] BiZ, CuiX, XuH, LiQ, XuD, GuoY. Optimization strategies toward production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from hexose: heterogeneous catalysts, solvent system and process. Chem Eng J, 2025, 510. 161613

[6] BinderJB, RainesRT. Simple chemical transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into furans for fuels and chemicals. J Am Chem Soc, 2009, 13151979-1985.

[7] CanduN, El FerganiM, VerziuM, CojocaruB, JurcaB, ApostolN, TeodorescuC, ParvulescuVI, ComanSM. Efficient glucose dehydration to HMF onto Nb-BEA catalysts. Catal Today, 2019, 325: 109-116.

[8] ChangK-L, HuynhQT, ZhongC-T, ChenW-R, WangH-Y, PhitsuwanP, LinY-C, YangGCC. Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from glucose by recyclable heteropolyacid catalyst in ionic liquid. Environ Technol Inno, 2022, 28. 102844

[9] ChenY, GeJ. Synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and its oxidation derivatives by immobilized catalysts: an efficient green sustainable technology. Chin J Catal, 2025, 71: 5-24.

[10] CostaMJF, GonçalvesAAS, RinaldiR, BradtmüllerH, EckertH, FerreiraEB. Highly porous niobium-containing silica glasses applied to the microwave-assisted conversion of fructose into HMF. Catal Commun, 2023, 174. 106577

[11] CunhaJT, RomaníA, DominguesL. Production of HMF-derivatives from wine residues using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as whole-cell biocatalyst. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2025, 1218.

[12] DangTM, NguyenTH, NguyenHK, PhanHB, NguyenHT, TranPH. Biomass-derived magnetic amorphous carbon as an efficient catalyst in the conversion of fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Dalton Trans, 2025, 54124965-4976.

[13] De AndradesD, AlnochRC, AlvesGS, SalgadoJCS, AlmeidaPZ, BertoGL, SegatoF, WardRJ, BuckeridgeMS, PolizeliMLdTM. Recombinant GH3 β-glucosidase stimulated by xylose and tolerant to furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural obtained from Aspergillus nidulans. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2024, 11177.

[14] DhakaV, SinghS, AnilAG, Sunil Kumar NaikTS, GargS, SamuelJ, KumarM, RamamurthyPC, SinghJ. Occurrence, toxicity and remediation of polyethylene terephthalate plastics. A review. Environ Chem Lett, 2022, 2031777-1800.

[15] DuZ, YangD, CaoQ, DaiJ, YangR, GuX, LiF. Recent advances in catalytic synthesis of 2,5-furandimethanol from 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and carbohydrates. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2023, 10152.

[16] DuttaS, DeS, PatraAK, SasidharanM, BhaumikA, SahaB. Microwave assisted rapid conversion of carbohydrates into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by mesoporous TiO₂ nanoparticles. Appl Catal A Gen, 2011, 409–410: 133-139.

[17] ElsayedI, MashalyM, EltaweelF, JacksonMA, HassanEB. Dehydration of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural by a core-shell Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-SO₃H magnetic nanoparticle catalyst. Fuel, 2018, 221: 407-416.

[18] FanC, GuanH, ZhangH, WangJ, WangS, WangX. Conversion of fructose and glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by a solid heteropolyacid salt. Biomass Bioenergy, 2011, 3572659-2665.

[19] FanG, ChenY, LuY, ChengQ, ChaiB, SongG. Co-production of 5-hydroxymethyl furfural and furfural from holocellulose over UiO-66-derived acid-base catalysts. Chem Eng Sci, 2023, 276. 118768

[20] FangR, DhakshinamoorthyA, LiY, GarciaH. Metal organic frameworks for biomass conversion. Chem Soc Rev, 2020, 49113638-3687.

[21] García-LópezEI, PomillaFR, MegnaB, TestaML, LiottaLF, MarcìG. Catalytic dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in aqueous medium over Nb₂O₅-based catalysts. Nanomaterials (Basel), 2021, 1171821.

[22] GuanW, ZhangY, ChenY, WuJ, CaoY, WeiY, HuoP. Hierarchical porous bowl-like nitrogen-doped carbon supported bimetallic AuPd nanoparticles as nanoreactors for high efficient catalytic oxidation of HMF to FDCA. J Catal, 2021, 396: 40-53.

[23] HerbstA, JaniakC. Selective glucose conversion to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) instead of levulinic acid with MIL-101Cr MOF-derivatives. New J Chem, 2016, 4097958-7967.

[24] HoangPH, CuongTD. Simultaneous direct production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and furfural from corncob biomass using porous HSO₃-ZSM-5 zeolite catalyst. Energy Fuels, 2021, 351546-551.

[25] HuS, ZhangZ, ZhouY, HanB, FanH, LiW, SongJ, XieY. Conversion of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural using ionic liquids prepared from renewable materials. Green Chem, 2008, 10121280-1283.

[26] HuL, WuZ, XuJ, SunY, LinL, LiuS. Zeolite-promoted transformation of glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquid. Chem Eng J, 2014, 244: 137-144.

[27] HwangK-R, JeonW, LeeSY, KimM-S, ParkY-K. Sustainable bioplastics: Recent progress in the production of bio-building blocks for the bio-based next-generation polymer PEF. Chem Eng J, 2020, 390. 124636

[28] JiaX, YuIKM, TsangDCW, YipACK. Functionalized zeolite-solvent catalytic systems for microwave-assisted dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Microporous Mesoporous Mater, 2019, 284: 43-52.

[29] JingS, CaoX, ZhongL, PengX, SunR, LiuJ. Effectively enhancing conversion of cellulose to HMF by combining in-situ carbonic acid from CO₂ and metal oxides. Ind Crop Prod, 2018, 126: 151-157.

[30] KangP, GabrijelčičM, KrajncA, Osojnik ČrnivecIG, LikozarB, SharmaRK. Organically functionalized mesoporous silica network for one-pot synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from glucose in water. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2025, 13134997-5008.

[31] KarS, ZhouQ-Q, Ben-DavidY, MilsteinD. Catalytic furfural/5-hydroxymethyl furfural oxidation to furoic acid/furan-2,5-dicarboxylic acid with H₂ production using alkaline water as the formal oxidant. J Am Chem Soc, 2022, 14431288-1295.

[32] KimG, TranAV, KeumY, KimTY, SongCK, LeeHJ, KimJM, KimYJ, BaekJ. Water-induced regeneration of active acid sites in Al-MCM-41-SO₄ during continuous fructose dehydration. Chem Eng J, 2025, 507. 160472

[33] KrugerJS, ChoudharyV, NikolakisV, VlachosDG. Elucidating the roles of zeolite H-BEA in aqueous-phase fructose dehydration and HMF rehydration. ACS Catal, 2013, 361279-1291.

[34] KusterBB. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). A review focussing on its manufacture. Starch-Starke, 1990, 42: 314-321.

[35] LaiF, YanF, WangP, WangS, LiS, ZhangZ. Highly efficient conversion of cellulose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural using temperature-responsive ChnH₅-nCeW₁₂O₄ (n = 1–5) catalysts. Chem Eng J, 2020, 396. 125282

[36] Lansalot-MatrasC, MoreauC. Dehydration of fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in the presence of ionic liquids. Catal Commun, 2003, 410517-520.

[37] LiY, LiuH, SongC, GuX, LiH, ZhuW, YinS, HanC. The dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural efficiently catalyzed by acidic ion-exchange resin in ionic liquid. Bioresour Technol, 2013, 133: 347-353.

[38] LiM, ZhangQ, LuoB, ChenC, WangS, MinD. Lignin-based carbon solid acid catalyst prepared for selectively converting fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Ind Crops Prod, 2020, 145. 111920

[39] LiuX, ZhangM, LiZ. CoOx-MC (MC = mesoporous carbon) for highly efficient oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA). ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2020, 8124801-4808.

[40] LongS, LiY, DuF, XianX, TangP, HuangZ. Carbon materials as microwave absorbers for microwave-assisted conversion of sugars to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in dimethyl carbonate-water solvents. Renew Energy, 2025, 246. 122921

[41] LuC, ZhouY, LiL, ChenH, YanL. Conversion of glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by Cr-and Fe-containing mixed-metal metal–organic frameworks. Fuel, 2023, 333. 126415

[42] LuC, HuB, LiL, JuX, YanL. Conversion of biomass-derived carbohydrates into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over sulfonated zirconium/tin mixed-metal metal–organic frameworks in deep eutectic solvents-water based biphasic system. J Ind Eng Chem, 2024, 137: 364-375.

[43] MarianouAA, MichailofCM, PinedaA, IliopoulouEF, TriantafyllidisKS, LappasAA. Effect of Lewis and Brønsted acidity on glucose conversion to 5-HMF and lactic acid in aqueous and organic media. Appl Catal A General, 2018, 555: 75-87.

[44] MilićM, ByströmE, Domínguez de MaríaP, KaraS. Enzymatic cascade for the synthesis of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid in biphasic and microaqueous conditions: ‘media-agnostic’ biocatalysts for biorefineries. Chemsuschem, 2022, 159. e202102704

[45] MoH-b, ChenX-p, LiaoX-y, ZhouT. Sustainable synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from waste cotton stalk catalyzed by solid superacid-SO₄^2-/ZrO₂. J Cent South Univ, 2017, 2481745-1753.

[46] MolinerM. State of the art of Lewis acid-containing zeolites: lessons from fine chemistry to new biomass transformation processes. Dalton T, 2014, 43114197-4208.

[47] MoralesG, MeleroJA, PaniaguaM, IglesiasJ, HernándezB, SanzM. Sulfonic acid heterogeneous catalysts for dehydration of C6-monosaccharides to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in dimethyl sulfoxide. Chin J Catal, 2014, 355644-655.

[48] MoreauC, DurandR, RazigadeS, DuhametJ, FaugerasP, RivalierP, RosP, AvignonG. Dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over H-mordenites. Appl Catal A Gen, 1996, 1451211-224.

[49] MoreauC, FinielsA, VanoyeL. Dehydration of fructose and sucrose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in the presence of 1-H-3-methyl imidazolium chloride acting both as solvent and catalyst. J Mol Catal A Chem, 2006, 2531165-169.

[50] NayakA, PulidindiIN, RaoCS. Novel strategies for glucose production from biomass using heteropoly acid catalyst. Renew Energ, 2020, 159: 215-220.

[51] NiakanM, Ghamari KargarP, MalekiB, ZabibahRS, Arab ApoorvariM, Sedigh AshrafiS, ArghavaniS, ZhouS. AgFe₂O₄@g-C₃N₄@SO₃H nanocomposite: efficient and heterogeneous photocatalyst for the production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural as a renewable biofuel under visible-light irradiation. Energy Fuels, 2025, 3931628-1639.

[52] NogueiraJSM, SantanaVT, HenriquePV, AguiarLGd, SilvaJPA, MussattoSI, CarneiroLM. Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from direct conversion of cellulose using heteropolyacid/Nb₂O₅ as catalyst. Catalysts, 2020, 10121417.

[53] OozeerallyR, RamkhelawanSDK, BurnettDL, TempelmanCHL, DegirmenciV. ZIF-8 metal organic framework for the conversion of glucose to fructose and 5-hydroxymethyl furfural. Catalysts, 2019, 910812.

[54] OsatiashtianiA, LeeAF, BrownDR, MeleroJA, MoralesG, WilsonK. Bifunctional SO₄/ZrO₂ catalysts for 5-hydroxymethylfufural (5-HMF) production from glucose. Catal Sci Technol, 2014, 42333-342.

[55] Pardo CuervoOH, RomanelliGP, CubillosJA, RojasHA, MartínezJJ. Selective catalytic dehydration of xylose to furfural and fructose and glucose to 5-hydroximethylfurfural (HMF) using preyssler heteropolyacid. ChemistrySelect, 2020, 5144186-4193.

[56] PengY, YangJ, DengC, DengJ, ShenL, FuY. Acetolysis of waste polyethylene terephthalate for upcycling and life-cycle assessment study. Nat Commun, 2023, 1413249.

[57] QiX, WatanabeM, AidaTM, SmithRL. Sulfated zirconia as a solid acid catalyst for the dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Catal Commun, 2009, 10131771-1775.

[58] QiX, WatanabeM, AidaTM, SmithRLJr. Efficient catalytic conversion of fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquids at room temperature. Chemsuschem, 2009, 210944-946.

[59] QiX, GuoH, LiL. Efficient conversion of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by sulfated zirconia in ionic liquids. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2011, 50137985-7989.

[60] QiX, WatanabeM, AidaTM, SmithRL. Synergistic conversion of glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquid–water mixtures. Bioresour Technol, 2012, 109: 224-228.

[61] QingQ, WuW, TaoX, MaZ, HeW, TaoY, WangL. One-pot synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from glucose and corn stover in an aqueous choline chloride/ acetone ternary solvent. Ind Crop Prod, 2022, 188. 115681

[62] RamliNAS, AminNAS. A new functionalized ionic liquid for efficient glucose conversion to 5-hydroxymethyl furfural and levulinic acid. J Mol Catal A Chem, 2015, 407: 113-121.

[63] RaoKTV, HuY, YuanZ, ZhangY, XuC. Nitrogen-doped carbon: a metal-free catalyst for selective oxidation of crude 5-hydroxymethylfurfural obtained from high fructose corn syrup (HFCS-90) to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA). Chem Eng J, 2021, 404. 127063

[64] RapadoP, GarcésD, FabaL, OrdóñezS. Zeolite-assisted acid hydrolysis of cellulose: optimization of reaction conditions and chemical pretreatments for enhancing HMF yields. Ind Crop Prod, 2024, 212. 118309

[65] Rihko-StruckmannLK, OluyinkaO, SahniA, McBrideK, FachetM, LudwigK, SundmacherK. Transformation of remnant algal biomass to 5-HMF and levulinic acid: influence of a biphasic solvent system. RSC Adv, 2020, 104224753-24763.

[66] Román-LeshkovY, ChhedaJN, DumesicJA. Phase modifiers promote efficient production of hydroxymethylfurfural from fructose. Science, 2006, 31257821933-1937.

[67] Román-LeshkovY, BarrettCJ, LiuZY, DumesicJA. Production of dimethylfuran for liquid fuels from biomass-derived carbohydrates. Nature, 2007, 4477147982-985.

[68] RomoJE, WuT, HuangX, LuceroJ, IrwinJL, BondJQ, CarreonMA, WettsteinSG. SAPO-34/5A zeolite bead catalysts for furan production from xylose and glucose. ACS Omega, 2018, 31116253-16259.

[69] RostamiFB, RostamiRB, RostamiMA, SadeghiA, RanjkeshM. One-pot alkaline earth and alkali metal salts assisted conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over bifunctional SAPO_34 molecular sieve using γ-valerolactone/water solvent system. Catal Lett, 2025, 155278.

[70] SadjadiS, YaghoubiS, ZhongX, YuanP, HeraviMM. Tuning the acidity of halloysite by polyionic liquid to develop an efficient catalyst for the conversion of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Sci Rep, 2023, 1317663.

[71] SaenluangK, ThivasasithA, DugkhuntodP, PornsetmetakulP, SalakhumS, NamuangrukS, WattanakitC. In situ synthesis of Sn-beta zeolite nanocrystals for glucose to hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). Catalysts, 2020, 10111249.

[72] SaghandaliF, KazemeiniM, SadjadiS. Halloysite-supported silicotungstic acid as an efficient catalyst for dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. J Phys Chem Solids, 2024, 184. 111697

[73] SahaB, GuptaD, Abu-OmarMM, ModakA, BhaumikA. Porphyrin-based porous organic polymer-supported iron(III) catalyst for efficient aerobic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethyl-furfural into 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid. J Catal, 2013, 299: 316-320.

[74] SajidM, BaiY, LiuD, ZhaoX. Organic acid catalyzed production of platform chemical 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from fructose: process comparison and evaluation based on kinetic modeling. Arab J Chem, 2020, 13107430-7444.

[75] SezginE, Esen KeçeciM, AkmazS, KocSN. Heterogeneous Cr-zeolites (USY and Beta) for the conversion of glucose and cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). Cellulose, 2019, 26179035-9043.

[76] ShenZ, YuX, ChenJ. Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from fructose catalyzed by sulfonated bamboo-derived carbon prepared by simultaneous carbonization and sulfonation. BioResources, 2016, 11: 3094-3109.

[77] ShiN, LiuQ, ZhangQ, WangT, MaL. High yield production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from cellulose by high concentration of sulfates in biphasic system. Green Chem, 2013, 1571967-1974.

[78] ShiX, XingX, RuanM, WeiQ, GuanY, GaoH, XuS. Efficient conversion of cellulose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural by inexpensive SO₄^2-/HfO₂ catalyst in a green water-tetrahydrofuran monophasic system. Chem Eng J, 2023, 472. 145001

[79] Silahua-PavónAA, Espinosa-GonzálezCG, Ortiz-ChiF, Pacheco-SosaJG, Pérez-VidalH, Arévalo-PérezJC, GodavarthiS, Torres-TorresJG. Production of 5-HMF from glucose using TiO₂-ZrO₂ catalysts: effect of the sol-gel synthesis additive. Catal Commun, 2019, 129. 105723

[80] Siqueira Mancilha NogueiraJ, Alves SilvaJP, MussattoSI, Melo CarneiroL. Synthesis and application of heterogeneous catalysts based on heteropolyacids for 5-hydroxymethylfurfural production from glucose. Energies, 2020, 133655.

[81] SonPA, NishimuraS, EbitaniK. Synthesis of levulinic acid from fructose using Amberlyst-15 as a solid acid catalyst. React Kine Mech Cat, 2012, 1061185-192.

[82] SongY, WangX, QuY, HuangC, LiY, ChenB. Efficient dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxy-methylfurfural catalyzed by heteropolyacid salts. Catalysts, 2016, 6449.

[83] SongX, YueJ, ZhuY, WenC, ChenL, LiuQ, MaL, WangC. Efficient conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over a Sn-modified SAPO-34 zeolite catalyst. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2021, 60165838-5851.

[84] Švarc-GajićJ, RodriguesF, MoreiraMM, Delerue-MatosC, MoraisS, DoroshO, SilvaAM, BassaniA, DzedikV, SpignoG. Chemical composition and bioactivity of oilseed cake extracts obtained by subcritical and modified subcritical water. Bioresour Bioprocess, 2022, 91114.

[85] SvenningsenGS, KumarR, WymanCE, ChristopherP. Unifying mechanistic analysis of factors controlling selectivity in fructose dehydration to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural by homogeneous acid catalysts in aprotic solvents. ACS Catal, 2018, 865591-5600.

[86] TakagakiA, OharaM, NishimuraS, EbitaniK. A one-pot reaction for biorefinery: combination of solid acid and base catalysts for direct production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from saccharides. Chem Commun, 2009, 41: 6276-6278.

[87] TangsermvitV, PilaT, BoekfaB, SomjitV, KlysubunW, LimtrakulJ, HorikeS, KongpatpanichK. Incorporation of Al3+ sites on brønsted acid metal-organic frameworks for glucose-to-hydroxylmethylfurfural transformation. Small, 2021, 17222006541.

[88] TaoF, SongH, ChouL. Dehydration of fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in acidic ionic liquids. RSC Adv, 2011, 14672-676.

[89] TestaML, MiroddiG, RussoM, La ParolaV, MarcìG. Dehydration of fructose to 5-HMF over acidic TiO₂ catalysts. Materials, 2020, 1351178.

[90] ThiensuwanN, ChotirattanachoteA, ChaowamaleeS, KobkeatthawinT, YokoiT, NgamcharussrivichaiC. Multifunctional ruthenium/exfoliated layered metal oxide–graphene oxide nanocomposites for homogeneous base-free oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Chem Eng J, 2025, 511. 161520

[91] TomerR, BiswasP. Dehydration of glucose/fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) over an easily recyclable sulfated titania (SO42−/TiO2) catalyst. New J Chem, 2020, 444720734-20750.

[92] WangJ, XuW, RenJ, LiuX, LuG, WangY. Efficient catalytic conversion of fructose into hydroxymethylfurfural by a novel carbon-based solid acid. Green Chem, 2011, 13102678-2681.

[93] WangX, ZhangX-Y, ZongM-H, LiN. Sacrificial substrate-free whole-cell biocatalysis for the synthesis of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid by engineered Escherichia coli. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2020, 8114341-4345.

[94] WangH, LiC, AnJ, ZhuangY, TaoS. Surface reconstruction of NiCoP for enhanced biomass upgrading. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 93418421-18430.

[95] WangF, ZhaoH, ZhangY, SongF, TanH, YuF, CuiH, XieY. Kinetic and characteristic investigations on the conversion of cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in the mixed metal salt system. Renew Energy, 2025, 242. 122434

[96] WangK, CheW, ZhengX, ChenY, ZuoM. Efficient synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from high fructose corn syrup 42# (HFCS-42) in natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) with aluminum-based catalysts, processes and mechanism. Fuel, 2025, 388. 134487

[97] WangX, ZhongX, WuH, WeiY, YuanP. Mechanistic insights into highly efficient oxygenation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid over natural sepiolite-supported bimetallic PdAu catalysts. Appl Surf Sci, 2025, 693. 162798

[98] WeiY, ZhangY, LiB, GuanW, YanC, LiX, YanY. Facile synthesis of metal-organic frameworks embedded in interconnected macroporous polymer as a dual acid-base bifunctional catalyst for efficient conversion of cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Chin J Chem Eng, 2022, 44: 169-181.

[99] WuN, ZhangM, PanX, ZhangJ, GaoL, XiaoG. An effective and inexpensive Hf/ZSM-5 catalyst for efficient HMF formation from cellulose. Catal Lett, 2021, 15171984-1992.

[100] WuJ, YangR, ZhaoS, ChenW, ChenZ, ChangC, WuH. Efficient conversion of fructose to produce high-purity 5-hydroxymethylfurfural under low temperature. Biomass Convers Bio, 2024, 141720143-20151.

[101] XiaT, GongW, ChenY, DuanM, MaJ, CuiX, DaiY, GaoC, XiongY. Sunlight-driven highly selective catalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural towards tunable products. Angew Chem Int Ed, 2022, 13429. e202204225

[102] XiangH, ZainalS, JonesH, OuX, D'AgostinoC, EstebanJ, ParlettCMA, FanX. Hierarchical zeolite catalysed fructose dehydration to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural within a biphasic solvent system under microwave irradiation. RSC Sustain, 2023, 161530-1539.

[103] XuW, ZhangY, WangJ, XuY, BianL, JuQ, WangY, FangZ. Defects engineering simultaneously enhances activity and recyclability of MOFs in selective hydrogenation of biomass. Nat Commun, 2022, 1312068.

[104] XuZ, FuT, HanY, LiZ, ZhanG. Facilely adjusting acidity features of zeolites by steaming treatment for enhanced methanol conversion to aromatics: a mechanism study. Fuel, 2023, 349. 128671

[105] XuL, PanX, WuN, GaoL, XiaoG. Synergistic effect of metal chloride for the generation of HMF from cellulose. Catal Lett, 2024, 1542674-684.

[106] YanH, YangY, TongD, XiangX, HuC. Catalytic conversion of glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural over SO₄²⁻/ZrO₂ and SO₄²⁻/ZrO₂–Al₂O₃ solid acid catalysts. Catal Commun, 2009, 10111558-1563.

[107] YanL, MaR, WeiH, LiL, ZouB, XuY. Ruthenium trichloride catalyzed conversion of cellulose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in biphasic system. Bioresour Technol, 2019, 279: 84-91.

[108] YangC, LiX, ZhangZ, LvB, LiJ, LiuZ, ZhuW, TaoF, LvG, YangY. High efficient catalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural into 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid under benign conditions with nitrogen-doped graphene encapsulated Cu nanoparticles. J Energy Chem, 2020, 50: 96-105.

[109] YangZ, PengX, WenY, XingR, KongJ, JiT, LuX, ZhuJ. Pulsed microwave induced super-heating in graphitic carbon domains drives high-efficiency 5-hydroxymethylfurfural synthesis. Chem Eng J, 2025, 503. 157402

[110] YuIKM, TsangDCW, YipACK, ChenSS, OkYS, PoonCS. Valorization of food waste into hydroxymethylfurfural: dual role of metal ions in successive conversion steps. Bioresour Technol, 2016, 219: 338-347.

[111] YuIKM, TsangDCW, YipACK, SuZ, De OliveiraVK, JérômeF, PoonCS, OkYS. Organic acid-regulated lewis acidity for selective catalytic hydroxymethylfurfural production from rice waste: an experimental-computational study. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2019, 711437-1446.

[112] ZhangL, XiG, ChenZ, QiZ, WangX. Enhanced formation of 5-HMF from glucose using a highly selective and stable SAPO-34 catalyst. Chem Eng J, 2017, 307: 877-883.

[113] ZhangY, ChenY, PanJ, LiuM, JinP, YanY. Synthesis and evaluation of acid-base bi-functionalized SBA-15 catalyst for biomass energy conversation. Chem Eng J, 2017, 313: 1593-1606.

[114] ZhangY, LiB, WeiY, YanC, MengM, YanY. Direct synthesis of metal-organic frameworks catalysts with tunable acid–base strength for glucose dehydration to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. J Taiwan Inst Chem E, 2019, 96: 93-103.

[115] ZhangT, LiW, JinY, OuW. Synthesis of sulfonated chitosan-derived carbon-based catalysts and their applications in the production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Int J Biol Macromol, 2020, 157: 368-376.

[116] ZhangY, GuanW, SongH, WeiY, JinP, LiB, YanC, PanJ, YanY. Coupled acid and base UiO-66-type MOFs supported on g-C₃N₄ as a bi-functional catalyst for one-pot production of 5-HMF from glucose. Micropor Mesopor Mat, 2020, 305. 110328

[117] ZhangT, WeiH, LingR, JinY, XiaoH, LiW, SeidiF. Efficient production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural from glucose over silica-tin oxide composite catalysts. Micropor Mesopor Mat, 2021, 311. 110717

[118] ZhangW, ShenZ, KongL, ChenW, GuM, XiaM, DongW, ZhangY. Sn doping on partially dealuminated Beta zeolite by solid state ion exchange for 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) production from glucose. J Chem Technol Biot, 2023, 983773-781.

[119] ZhaoH, HolladayJE, BrownH, ZhangZC. Metal chlorides in ionic liquid solvents convert sugars to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Science, 2007, 31658311597-1600.

[120] ZhaoQ, SunZ, WangS, HuangG, WangX, JiangZ. Conversion of highly concentrated fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural by acid–base bifunctional HPA nanocatalysts induced by choline chloride. RSC Adv, 2014, 410863055-63061.

[121] ZhaoJ, ZhangY, WangK, YanC, DaZ, LiC, YanY. Development of hierarchical porous MOF-based catalyst of UiO-66(Hf) and its application for 5-hydroxymethylfurfural production from cellulose. ChemistrySelect, 2018, 34111476-11485.

[122] ZhaoP, ZhangY, WangY, CuiH, SongF, SunX, ZhangL. Conversion of glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by acid–base bifunctional heteropolyacid-based ionic hybrids. Green Chem, 2018, 2071551-1559.

[123] ZhaoD, Rodríguez-PadrónD, TriantafyllidisKS, WangY, LuqueR, LenC. Microwave-assisted oxidation of hydroxymethyl furfural to added-value compounds over a ruthenium-based catalyst. ACS Sustain Chem Eng, 2020, 8: 3091-3102.

[124] ZhaoY, QuY, ZhuL, XuH, LuK, WangS. Conversion of hexose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural catalyzed by phosphated binary Ti-Zr oxide. Chem Indust Forest Prod, 2020, 40: 17-26.

[125] ZhongJ, GuoY, ChenJ. Protonated and layered transition metal oxides as solid acids for dehydration of biomass-based fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. J Energy Chem, 2017, 261147-154.

[126] ZhongX, YuanP, WeiY, LiuD, LosicD, LiM. Coupling natural halloysite nanotubes and bimetallic Pt–Au alloy nanoparticles for highly efficient and selective oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022, 1433949-3960.

[127] ZiG, YanZ, WangY, ChenY, GuoY, YuanF, GaoW, WangY, WangJ. Catalytic hydrothermal conversion of carboxymethyl cellulose to value-added chemicals over metal–organic framework MIL-53(Al). Carbohydr Polym, 2015, 115: 146-151.

Funding

Ordos City science and technology major project(2022EEDSKJZDZX017)

Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology high-level talent research start-up fund project(099000/21020620)

Science and Technology Projects in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region(2020GG0262)

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

The Author(s)