Extraction and surface modification of cellulose fibers and its reinforcement in starch-based film for packaging composites

Abstract

Background

Cellulose extraction from gloss art paper (GAP) waste is a recycling strategy for the abundance of gloss art paper waste. Here, a study was conducted on the impact of ultrasonic homogenization for cellulose extraction from GAP waste to improve the particle size, crystallinity, and thermal stability.

Results

At treatment temperature of 75.8 °C, ultrasonic power level of 70.3% and 1.4 h duration, cellulose with properties of 516.4 nm particle size, 71.5% crystallinity, and thermal stability of 355.2 °C were extracted. Surface modification of cellulose GAP waste with H₃PO₄ hydrolysis and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO) oxidation was done followed by starch reinforcement. Surface hydrophobicity and mechanical strength were increased for H₃PO₄ hydrolysis and TEMPO oxidation starch–cellulose. No reduction of thermal properties observed during the treatment, while increment of crystallinity index up to 47.65–59.6% was shown. Neat starch film was more transparent, followed by starch–TEMPO film and starch–H₃PO₄ film, due to better homogeneity.

Conclusions

The cellulose GAP reinforced starch film shows potential in developing packaging materials and simultaneously provide an alternative solution of GAP waste recycling.

Keywords

Gloss art paper / Cellulose / Extraction / Ultrasonic / Surface modification / Mechanical properties

References

[1] Abdullah MA, Nazir MS, Raza MR, . Autoclave and ultra-sonication treatments of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers for cellulose extraction and its polypropylene composite properties. J Clean Prod, 2016, 126: 686-697.

[2] Ahmad Khorairi ANS, Sofian-Seng NS, Othaman R, . A review on agro-industrial waste as cellulose and nanocellulose source and their potentials in food applications. Food Rev Int, 2021

[3] Asem M, Jimat DN, Jafri NHS, . Entangled cellulose nanofibers produced from sugarcane bagasse via alkaline treatment, mild acid hydrolysis assisted with ultrasonication. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci, 2021

[4] Balasubramaniam SPL, Patel AS, Nayak B. Surface modification of cellulose nanofiber film with fatty acids for developing renewable hydrophobic food packaging. Food Packag Shelf Life, 2020

[5] Baruah J, Deka RC, Kalita E. Greener production of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from Saccharum spontaneum (Kans grass): statistical optimization. Int J Biol Macromol, 2020, 154: 672-682.

[6] Basri NEA, Ghani SFA, Zain SM, Ghee TK. Waste generation and students’ perception on waste separation program at cafeterias UKM Bangi campus. J Eng Sci Technol, 2017, 12: 80-90.

[7] Bello F, Chimphango A. Optimization of lignin extraction from alkaline treated mango seed husk by high shear homogenization-assisted organosolv process using response surface methodology. Int J Biol Macromol, 2021, 167: 1379-1392.

[8] Chen F, Xiang W, Sawada D, . Exploring large ductility in cellulose nanopaper combining high toughness and strength. ACS Nano, 2020, 14: 11150-11159.

[9] Chiulan I, Panaitescu DM, Radu ER, . Influence of TEMPO oxidation on the properties of ethylene glycol methyl ether acrylate grafted cellulose sponges. Carbohydr Polym, 2021

[10] Chowdhury RA (2019) Roll-to-roll fabrication of cellulose nanocrystal nanocomposite for gas barrier and thermal management applications. 159

[11] El Achaby M, Kassab Z, Barakat A, Aboulkas A. Alfa fibers as viable sustainable source for cellulose nanocrystals extraction: application for improving the tensile properties of biopolymer nanocomposite films. Ind Crops Prod, 2018, 112: 499-510.

[12] Gu H, Gao X, Zhang H, . Fabrication and characterization of cellulose nanoparticles from maize stalk pith via ultrasonic-mediated cationic etherification. Ultrason Sonochem, 2020

[13] Hafid HS, Omar FN, Zhu J, Wakisaka M. Enhanced crystallinity and thermal properties of cellulose from rice husk using acid hydrolysis treatment. Carbohydr Polym, 2021

[14] Hietala M, Varrio K, Berglund L, . Potential of municipal solid waste paper as raw material for production of cellulose nanofibres. Waste Manag, 2018, 80: 319-326.

[15] Jiang Q, Xing X, Jing Y, Han Y. Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals based on waste paper via different systems. Int J Biol Macromol, 2020, 149: 1318-1322.

[16] Joshi G, Rana V, Naithani S, . Chemical modification of waste paper: An optimization towards hydroxypropyl cellulose synthesis. Carbohydr Polym, 2019

[17] Kaffashsaie E, Yousefi H, Nishino T, . Direct conversion of raw wood to TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers. Carbohydr Polym, 2021

[18] Kassab Z, Abdellaoui Y, Salim MH, . Micro- and nano-celluloses derived from hemp stalks and their effect as polymer reinforcing materials. Carbohydr Polym, 2020

[19] Kassem I, Kassab Z, Khouloud M, . Phosphoric acid-mediated green preparation of regenerated cellulose spheres and their use for all-cellulose cross-linked superabsorbent hydrogels. Int J Biol Macromol, 2020, 162: 136-149.

[20] Kumari D, Singh R. Ultrasonic assisted petha waste water pretreatment of rice straw for optimum production of methane and ethanol using mixed microbial culture. Renew Energy, 2020, 145: 682-690.

[21] Kuo TC, Hsu NY, Wattimena R, . Toward a circular economy: A system dynamic model of recycling framework for aseptic paper packaging waste in Indonesia. J Clean Prod, 2021

[22] Lin L, Yang J, Ni S, . Resource utilization and ionization modification of waste starch from the recycling process of old corrugated cardboard paper. J Environ Manage, 2020

[23] Liu M, Tan S, Zhang M, . Waste paper recycling decision system based on material flow analysis and life cycle assessment: a case study of waste paper recycling from China. J Environ Manage, 2020, 255: 109859.

[24] Liu Y, Ahmed S, Sameen DE, . A review of cellulose and its derivatives in biopolymer-based for food packaging application. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2021, 112: 532-546.

[25] Megashah LN, Ariffin H, Zakaria MR, . Modification of cellulose degree of polymerization by superheated steam treatment for versatile properties of cellulose nanofibril film. Cellulose, 2020, 27: 7417-7429.

[26] Mohamed MA, Salleh WNW, Jaafar J, . Physicochemical characterization of cellulose nanocrystal and nanoporous self-assembled CNC membrane derived from Ceiba pentandra. Carbohydr Polym, 2017, 157: 1892-1902.

[27] Mohd Ishak NA, Khalil I, Abdullah FZ, MuhdJulkapli N. A correlation on ultrasonication with nanocrystalline cellulose characteristics. Carbohydr Polym, 2020

[28] Mustapha S, Andou Y. Tailored higher performance silicone elastomer with nanofibrillated cellulose through acidic treatment. Polym Compos, 2021, 42: 2282-2292.

[29] Nigam S, Das AK, Patidar MK. Valorization of Parthenium hysterophorus weed for cellulose extraction and its application for bioplastic preparation. J Environ Chem Eng, 2021

[30] Nuruddin M, Chowdhury RA, Szeto R, . Structure-property relationship of cellulose nanocrystal-polyvinyl alcohol thin films for high barrier coating applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021, 13: 12472-12482.

[31] Oliva C, Huang W, El Badri S, . Concentrated sulfuric acid aqueous solution enables rapid recycling of cellulose from waste paper into antimicrobial packaging. Carbohydr Polym, 2020, 241: 1-7.

[32] Omar FN (2017) Biodegradation of oil palm fibers using locally isolated fungi (Pycnoporous sanguineus) through plant biomechanics approach. PhD Thesis. Universiti Putra Malaysia

[33] Patino-Maso J, Serra-Parareda F, Tarres Q, Mutje P, Espinach FX, Delgado-Aguilar M. TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers: a potential bio-based superabsorbent for diaper production. Nanomaterials, 2019, 9: 1271.

[34] Poletto M, Ornaghi Júnior HL, Zattera AJ. Native cellulose: structure, characterization and thermal properties. Materials (Basel), 2014, 7: 6105-6119.

[35] Qu R, Tang M, Wang Y, . TEMPO-oxidized cellulose fibers from wheat straw: effect of ultrasonic pretreatment and concentration on structure and rheological properties of suspensions. Carbohydr Polym, 2021

[36] Ramadoss G, Muthukumar K. Influence of dual salt on the pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse with hydrogen peroxide for bioethanol production. Chem Eng J, 2015, 260: 178-187.

[37] Rosli NA, Wan Ishak WH, Ahmad I. Eco-friendly high-density polyethylene/amorphous cellulose composites: environmental and functional value. J Clean Prod, 2021

[38] Shahbazi M, Ahmadi SJ, Seif A, Rajabzadeh G. Carboxymethyl cellulose film modification through surface photo-crosslinking and chemical crosslinking for food packaging applications. Food Hydrocoll, 2016, 61: 378-389.

[39] Singh SS, Lim LT, Manickavasagan A. Ultrasound-assisted alkali-urea pre-treatment of Miscanthus × giganteus for enhanced extraction of cellulose fiber. Carbohydr Polym, 2020

[40] Soontornchaiboon W, Kim SM, Pawongrat R. Effects of alkaline combined with ultrasonic pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of agricultural wastes for high reducing sugar production. Sains Malaysiana, 2016, 45(60): 955-962.

[41] Takagi H, Nakagaito AN, Bistamam MSA. Extraction of cellulose nanofiber from waste papers and application to reinforcement in biodegradable composites. J Reinf Plast Compos, 2013, 32: 1542-1546.

[42] Tiew KG, Basri NEA, Watanabe K, . Higher educational institutions recycling management in Malaysia. Int J Bus Soc, 2019, 20: 277-285.

[43] Wang W, Sabo RC, Mozuch MD, . Physical and mechanical properties of cellulose nanofibril films from bleached eucalyptus pulp by endoglucanase treatment and microfluidization. J Polym Environ, 2015, 23: 551-558.

[44] Yacob N, Yusof MR, Mohamed AZ, Badri KH. Effect of cellulose fiber loading on the properties of starch-based films. AIP Conf Proc, 2019

[45] Yang Y, Shen H, Qiu J. Bio-inspired self-bonding nanofibrillated cellulose composite: a response surface methodology for optimization of processing variables in binderless biomass materials produced from wheat-straw-lignocelluloses. Ind Crops Prod, 2020, 149: 112335.

[46] Zainal SH, Nofrianti R, Lazim AM, Othaman R. Cellulose-based hydrogel as Halal agricultural medium. Malaysian Appl Biol, 2019, 48: 109-113.

[47] Zhou G, Li MC, Liu C, Wu Q, Mei C. 3D printed Ti3C2Tx MXene/cellulose nanofiber architectures for solid-state supercapacitors: ink rheology, 3D printability, and electrochemical performance. Adv Funct Mater, 2021

[48] Zhou G, Li MC, Wang F, Liu C, Mei C. 3D printing of cellulose nanofiber monoliths for thermal insulation and energy storage applications. Addit Manuf, 2022, 59: 103124.

Funding

Universiti Putra Malaysia(GP-IPM/2022/9715800)