Conventional use and sustainable valorization of spent egg-laying hens as functional foods and biomaterials: A review

Abstract

Spent hen are egg-laying hens reaching the end of their laying cycles; billions of spent hens are produced globally each year. Differences in people’s attitudes towards spent hen as foods lead to their different fates among countries. While spent hens are consumed as raw or processed meat products in Asian countries such as China, India, Korea, and Thailand, they are treated as a byproduct or waste, not a food product, in the western society; they are instead disposed by burial, incineration, composting (as fertilizers), or rendering into animal feed and pet food, which either create little market value or cause animal welfare and environmental concerns. Despite being a waste, spent hen is a rich source of animal proteins and lipids, which are suitable starting materials for developing valorized products. This review discussed the conventional uses of spent hens, including food, animal feed, pet food, and compost, and the emerging uses, including biomaterials and functional food ingredients. These recent advances enable more sustainable utilization of spent hen, contributing to alternative solutions to its disposal while yielding residual value to the egg industry. Future research will continue to focus on the conversion of spent hen biomass into value-added products.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Spent hen / Agricultural byproduct / Sustainable utilization / Biomaterials / Functional foods / Chicken / Bioactive peptides

References

[1] AAFC (2021) Canada’s table and processed egg industry. https://agriculture.canada.ca/en/canadas-agriculture-sectors/animal-industry/poultry-and-egg-market-information/table-and-processed-eggs. Accessd 31 July 2020.

[2] Abdalla H, Ali N, Siddig F, Ali S. Improving tenderness of spent layer hens meat using papaya leaves (Carica papaya). Pak Vet J, 2013, 33: 73-76.

[3] Abdallah MM, Fernández N, Matias AA, do Rosário Bronze M. Hyaluronic acid and Chondroitin sulfate from marine and terrestrial sources: extraction and purification methods. Carbohyd Polym, 2020, 243: 116441.

[4] Adams P, Bridgwater T, Lea-Langton A, Ross A, Watson I (2018) Biomass conversion technologies. In: Greenhouse gas balances of bioenergy systems. Elsevier, pp 107–139

[5] Alders RG (2004) Poultry for profit and pleasure. Food & Agriculture Org. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cLUZV0LS77IC&oi=fnd&pg=PA21&dq=Poultry+for+profit+and+pleasure&ots=KyobGTpPjI&sig=6C4eJfI8abtA6UT4jbAkgWen2lU#v=onepage&q=Poultry%20for%20profit%20and%20pleasure&f=false

[6] Alders RG, Dumas SE, Rukambile E, Magoke G, Maulaga W, Jong J, Costa R. Family poultry: multiple roles, systems, challenges, and options for sustainable contributions to household nutrition security through a planetary health lens. Matern Child Nutr, 2018, 14: e12668.

[7] Aldrich G (2006) Rendered products in pet food. Essential rendering, pp 159–178

[8] Australia, A. H. (2021) Australian Ruminant Feed Ban. https://animalhealthaustralia.com.au/australian-ruminant-feed-ban/. Accessed 15 Sept 2021

[9] Azeez L, Lateef A, Adejumo AL, Adeleke JT, Adetoro RO, Mustapha Z. Adsorption behaviour of rhodamine B on hen feather and corn starch functionalized with green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) mediated with cocoa pods extracts. Chem Afr, 2020, 3(1): 237-250.

[10] Bhaskar N, Sachindra N, Modi V, Sakhare P, Mahendrakar N. Preparation of proteolytic activity rich ginger powder and evaluation of its tenderizing effect on spent-hen muscles. J Muscle Foods, 2006, 17(2): 174-184.

[11] Bravo Jimenez S, Orozco-Hernandez J, Uribe-Gomez J, Fuentes Hernandez V, Aguilar de la Torre A, Navarro-Gonzalez O. The effect of adding spent hen meal in pig feeding. Res J Biol Sci, 2009, 4(9): 1045-1047.

[12] Caroline NL, Schwartz H. Chicken soup rebound and relapse of pneumonia: report of a case. Chest, 1975, 67(2): 215-216.

[13] CFIA (2015) About Canada’s enhanced feed ban. https://inspection.canada.ca/animal-health/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/bovine-spongiform-encephalopathy/enhanced-feed-ban/eng/1424374475489/1424374476208. Accessed 15 Sept 2021

[14] Chatterjee A, Jensen VR. A heterogeneous catalyst for the transformation of fatty acids to α-olefins. ACS Catal, 2017, 7(4): 2543-2547.

[15] Cheng Z, Hardy R, Huige N. Apparent digestibility coefficients of nutrients in brewer's and rendered animal by-products for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)). Aquac Res, 2004, 35(1): 1-9.

[16] Christmas R, Damron B, Ouart M. The performance of commercial broilers when fed various levels of rendered whole-hen meal. Poult Sci, 1996, 75(4): 536-539.

[17] Commission, E. (2021) Feed ban: Commission authorises use of certain animal proteins. https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/sante/items/718842/en. Accessed 17 Sept 2021

[18] de Souza K, Araujo R, dos Santos A, Rodrigues C, de Faria D, Trindade M. Adding value to the meat of spent laying hens manufacturing sausages with a healthy appeal. Braz J Poult Sci, 2011, 13(1): 57-63.

[19] Dong X-B, Li X, Zhang C-H, Wang J-Z, Tang C-H, Sun H-M, Jia W, Chen L-L. Development of a novel method for hot-pressure extraction of protein from chicken bone and the effect of enzymatic hydrolysis on the extracts. Food Chem, 2014, 157: 339-346.

[20] Douglas MW, Parsons CM. Dietary formulation with rendered spent hen meals on a total amino acid versus a digestible amino acid basis. Poult Sci, 1999, 78(4): 556-560.

[21] Esfandi R, Walters ME, Tsopmo A. Antioxidant properties and potential mechanisms of hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from cereals. Heliyon, 2019, 5(4): e01538.

[22] Esparza Y, Bandara N, Ullah A, Wu J. Hydrogels from feather keratin show higher viscoelastic properties and cell proliferation than those from hair and wool keratins. Mater Sci Eng C, 2018, 90: 446-453.

[23] Fan H, Wu J. Spent hen muscle protein hydrolysate reduces blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Am Oil Chem Soc, 2020, 97: 48.

[24] Fan H, Wu J (2021a) Food peptides in blood pressure regulation. In: Food proteins and peptides, pp 371–401. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781839163425-00371

[25] Fan H, Wu J. Purification and identification of novel ACE inhibitory and ACE2 upregulating peptides from spent hen muscle proteins. Food Chem, 2021, 345: 128867.

[26] Fan H, Wu J. Spent hen-derived angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) upregulating peptide reduces blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Am Oil Chem Soc, 2021, 10: 290.

[27] Fan H, Xu Q, Hong H, Wu J. Stability and transport of spent hen-derived ACE-inhibitory peptides IWHHT, IWH, and IW in human intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayers. J Agric Food Chem, 2018, 66: 11347-11354.

[28] Fan H, Yu W, Liao W, Wu J. Spent hen protein hydrolysate with good gastrointestinal stability and permeability in caco-2 cells shows antihypertensive activity in SHR. Foods, 2020, 9(10): 1384.

[29] Fan H, Bhullar KS, Wu J. Spent hen muscle protein-derived RAS regulating peptides show antioxidant activity in vascular cells. Antioxidants, 2021, 10(2): 290.

[30] Fan H, Liao W, Spaans F, Pasha M, Davidge ST, Wu J. Chicken muscle hydrolysate reduces blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats, upregulates ACE2, and ameliorates vascular inflammation, fibrosis, and oxidative stress. J Food Sci, 2022, 87(3): 1292-1305.

[31] Freeman S, Poore M, Huntington G, Middleton T, Ferket P. Determination of nitrogen balance in goats fed a meal produced from hydrolyzed spent hen hard tissues. J Anim Sci, 2009, 87(3): 1068-1076.

[32] Freeman S, Poore M, Middleton T, Ferket P. Alternative methods for disposal of spent laying hens: evaluation of the efficacy of grinding, mechanical deboning, and of keratinase in the rendering process. Bioresour Technol, 2009, 100(19): 4515-4520.

[33] Fritts C, Kersey J, Waldroup P. Utilization of spent hen meal in diets for laying hens. Int J Poult Sci, 2002, 1(4): 82-84.

[34] Fujita H, Yokoyama K, Yoshikawa M. Classification and antihypertensive activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides derived from food proteins. J Food Sci, 2000, 65(4): 564-569.

[35] Gu Y, Liang Y, Bai J, Wu W, Lin Q, Wu J. Spent hen-derived ACE inhibitory peptide IWHHT shows antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities in endothelial cells. J Funct Foods, 2019, 53: 85-92.

[36] Hjellnes V, Šližyte R, Rustad T, Carvajal AK, Greiff K. Utilization of egg-laying hens (Gallus Gallus domesticus) for production of ingredients for human consumption and animal feed. BMC Biotechnol, 2020, 20(1): 1-12.

[37] Hong H, Chaplot S, Chalamaiah M, Roy BC, Bruce HL, Wu J. Removing cross-Linked telopeptides enhances the production of low-molecular-weight collagen peptides from spent hens. J Agric Food Chem, 2017, 65(34): 7491-7499.

[38] Hong H, Roy BC, Chalamaiah M, Bruce HL, Wu J. Pretreatment with formic acid enhances the production of small peptides from highly cross-linked collagen of spent hens. Food Chem, 2018, 258: 174-180.

[39] Hong H, Fan H, Chalamaiah M, Wu J. Preparation of low-molecular-weight, collagen hydrolysates (peptides): current progress, challenges, and future perspectives. Food Chem, 2019, 301: 125222.

[40] Hong H, Fan H, Roy BC, Wu J. Amylase enhances production of low molecular weight collagen peptides from the skin of spent hen, bovine, porcine, and tilapia. Food Chem, 2021, 352: 129355.

[41] Hur SJ, Choi JS, Jin SK. Effect of freeze-dried mechanically deboned spent laying hen hydrolysates on the quality characteristics of boiled fish paste. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2016, 9(7): 1169-1176.

[42] Hy-Line (2020) Management guide—W-36. https://www.hyline.com/varieties/w-36

[43] IEC (2021) International Egg Commission - Global egg production continues to grow. https://www.internationalegg.com/resource/global-egg-production-continues-to-grow/. Accessed 31 July 2021

[44] Jacob JP, Wilson HR, Miles RD, Butcher GD, Mather FB (2014) Factors affecting egg production in backyard chicken flocks. US Department of Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A & M University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating 25(4):15

[45] Jin S, Kim I, Jung H, Kim D, Choi Y, Hur S. The development of sausage including meat from spent laying hen surimi. Poult Sci, 2007, 86(12): 2676-2684.

[46] Jin SK, Kim IS, Jung HJ, Kim DH, Choi YJ, Hur SJ. Effect of cryoprotectants on chemical, mechanical and sensorial characteristics of spent laying hen surimi. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2011, 4(8): 1407-1413.

[47] Jin SK, Choi JS, Choi YJ, Lee S-J, Lee SY, Hur SJ. Antioxidant, liver protective and angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory activities of old laying hen hydrolysate in crab meat analogue. Asian Australas J Anim Sci, 2016, 29(12): 1774.

[48] Kantale RA, Kumar P, Mehta N, Chatli MK, Malav OP, Kaur A, Wagh RV. Comparative efficacy of synthetic and natural tenderizers on quality characteristics of restructured spent hen meat slices (RSHS). Food Sci Anim Resour, 2019, 39(1): 121.

[49] Karthik P, Kulkarni V, Sivakumar K. Preparation, storage stability and palatability of spent hen meal based pet food. J Food Sci Technol, 2010, 47(3): 330-334.

[50] Karuppannan SK, Dowlath MJH, Raiyaan GD, Rajadesingu S, Arunachalam KD (2021) Application of poultry industry waste in producing value-added products—a review. In: Concepts of advanced zero waste tools, 91–121.

[51] Koelkebeck KW, Parsons CM, Douglas M, Leeper R, Jin S, Wang X, Zhang X, Fernandez S. Early postmolt performance of laying hens fed a low-protein corn molt diet supplemented with spent hen meal. Poult Sci, 2001, 80(3): 353-357.

[52] Krestel-Rickert D (2001) Spent hens for use in pet food. Google Patents (US20010031307A1)

[53] Kucinska JK, Magnucka EG, Oksinska MP, Pietr SJ. Bioefficacy of hen feather keratin hydrolysate and compost on vegetable plant growth. Compost Sci Util, 2014, 22(3): 179-187.

[54] Kumar R, Sharma B. Efficacy of barley flour as extender in chicken patties from spent hen meat. J Appl Anim Res, 2006, 30(1): 53-55.

[55] Kumar Y, Singh P, Tanwar VK, Ponnusamy P, Singh PK, Shukla P. Augmentation of quality attributes of chicken tikka prepared from spent hen meat with lemon juice and ginger extract marination. Nutr Food Sci, 2015, 45(4): 606-615.

[56] Kumar D, Jyoti A, Tarafdar A, Kumar A, Badgujar PC. Comparative functional and spectroscopic analysis of spent hen meat hydrolysate by individual and combined treatment of microbial proteases. Prep Biochem Biotechnol, 2020, 51(6): 618-627.

[57] Kumar D, Mishra A, Tarafdar A, Kumar Y, Verma K, Aluko R, Trajkovska B, Badgujar PC. In vitro bioaccessibility and characterisation of spent hen meat hydrolysate powder prepared by spray and freeze-drying techniques. Process Biochem, 2021, 105: 128-136.

[58] Laca A, Laca A, Diaz M. Galanakis CM. Chapter 4—Environmental impact of poultry farming and egg production. Environmental impact of agro-food industry and food consumption, 2021, Cambridge: Academic Press, 81-100.

[59] Lammi C, Aiello G, Boschin G, Arnoldi A. Multifunctional peptides for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a new concept in the area of bioactive food-derived peptides. J Funct Foods, 2019, 55: 135-145.

[60] Lasekan A, Bakar FA, Hashim D. Potential of chicken by-products as sources of useful biological resources. Waste Manage, 2013, 33(3): 552-565.

[61] Lee S, Min J, Kim I, Lee M. Physical evaluation of popped cereal snacks with spent hen meat. Meat Sci, 2003, 64(4): 383-390.

[62] Li CT. Myofibrillar protein extracts from spent hen meat to improve whole muscle processed meats. Meat Sci, 2006, 72(3): 581-583.

[63] Lipman TO. The chicken soup paradigm and nutrition support: rethinking terminology. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2003, 27(1): 93.

[64] Lohmann_Breeders (2019) Management guide—Lohmann brown and LSL. https://lohmann-breeders.com/

[65] Maehashi K, Matsuzaki M, Yamamoto Y, UDAKA S. Isolation of peptides from an enzymatic hydrolysate of food proteins and characterization of their taste properties. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 1999, 63(3): 555-559.

[66] Malone B (2004) Compositing poultry losses. Poultry information exchange (Proceedings), pp 39–42

[67] McHugh T (2019) Food Technology Editors Predict Trends for 2020. Webpage. https://www.ift.org/news-and-publications/news/2019/december/31/food-technology-editors-predict-trends-for-2020

[68] Melgosa R, Marques M, Paiva A, Bernardo A, Fernández N, Sá-Nogueira I, Simões P. Subcritical water extraction and hydrolysis of cod (Gadusmorhua) frames to produce bioactive protein extracts. Foods, 2021, 10(6): 1222.

[69] Mittal A, Thakur V, Gajbe V. Adsorptive removal of toxic azo dye Amido Black 10B by hen feather. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 2013, 20(1): 260-269.

[70] Nadalian M, Yusop SM, Babji AS, Mustapha WAW, Azman MA. Effects of enzymatic hydrolysis on the antioxidant activity of water-soluble elastin extracted from broiler and spent hen skin. Int J Appl Biol Pharm Technol, 2015, 6(4): 1-10.

[71] Nakamura A, Arimoto M, Takeuchi K, Fujii T. A rapid extraction procedure of human hair proteins and identification of phosphorylated species. Biol Pharm Bull , 2002, 25(6): 569-572.

[72] Naushad M, ALOthman ZA. Separation of toxic Pb2+ metal from aqueous solution using strongly acidic cation-exchange resin: analytical applications for the removal of metal ions from pharmaceutical formulation. Desalin Water Treat, 2015, 53(8): 2158-2166.

[73] Newberry RC, Webster AB, Lewis NJ, Van Arnam C. Management of spent hens. J Appl Anim Welf Sci, 1999, 2(1): 13-29.

[74] New-Life_Mills (2016) Pullet & Layer management guide. https://www.newlifemills.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Pullet-Layer-Management-Guide-2016-Oct.-2016-english-web.pdf

[75] Nowsad A, Kanoh S, Niwa E. Thermal gelation characteristics of breast and thigh muscles of spent hen and broiler and their surimi. Meat Sci, 2000, 54(2): 169-175.

[76] Offengenden M, Chakrabarti S, Wu J. Chicken collagen hydrolysates differentially mediate anti-inflammatory activity and type I collagen synthesis on human dermal fibroblasts. Food Sci Hum Wellness, 2018, 7(2): 138-147.

[77] Okarini IA, Purnomo H, Radiati LE. Proximate, total phenolic, antioxidant activity and amino acids profile of Bali indigenous chicken, spent laying hen and broiler breast fillet. Int J Poult Sci, 2013, 12(7): 415-420.

[78] Parihar P, Kushwaha RKS. A survey of keratinophilic fungi as a tool for hen feather utilization. Mycoscience, 2000, 41(6): 645-649.

[79] Peña-Saldarriaga LM, Fernández-López J, Pérez-Alvarez JA. Quality of chicken fat by-products: lipid profile and colour properties. Foods, 2020, 9(8): 1046.

[80] Pirsich W, von Hardenberg LM, Theuvsen L. The pet food industry: an innovative distribution channel for marketing feed products from welfare friendly production to consumers?. Int J Food Syst Dyn, 2017, 8(3): 250-261.

[81] Pradhan RA, Arshad M, Ullah A. Solvent-free rapid ethenolysis of fatty esters from spent hen and other lipidic feedstock with high turnover numbers. J Ind Eng Chem, 2020, 84: 42-45.

[82] Pym R (2013) Poultry genetics and breeding in developing countries. Poultry Development Review FAO, pp 80–83

[83] Rajeshwar PK, Malav OP, Mehta N, Chatli MK, Kumar P, Wagh RV. Development of shelf stable spent hen meat kachori incorporated with prebiotic fibers. Int J Livest Res, 2018, 8(11): 341-355.

[84] Regulations, C. o. F. (2016) Cattle materials prohibited in animal food or feed to prevent the transmission of bovine spongiform encephalopathy. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-E/part-589/subpart-B/section-589.2001. Accessed 15 Sept 2021

[85] Rennard BO, Ertl RF, Gossman GL, Robbins RA, Rennard SI. Chicken soup inhibits neutrophil chemotaxis in vitro. Chest, 2000, 118(4): 1150-1157.

[86] Rennard SI, Kalil AC, Casaburi R. Chicken Soup in the Time of COVID. Chest, 2020, 158(3): 864-865.

[87] Rojas O, Stein H. Concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy and digestibility of amino acids in chicken meal, poultry byproduct meal, hydrolyzed porcine intestines, a spent hen–soybean meal mixture, and conventional soybean meal fed to weanling pigs. J Anim Sci, 2013, 91(7): 3220-3230.

[88] Sabikun N, Bakhsh A, Rahman MS, Hwang Y-H, Joo S-T. Evaluation of chicken nugget properties using spent hen meat added with milk fat and potato mash at different levels. J Food Sci Technol, 2020, 58: 2783-2791.

[89] Safder M, Temelli F, Ullah A. Extraction, optimization, and characterization of lipids from spent hens: an unexploited sustainable bioresource. J Clean Prod, 2019, 206: 622-630.

[90] Safder M, Temelli F, Ullah A. Supercritical CO₂ extraction and solvent-free rapid alternative bioepoxy production from spent hens. J CO2 Util, 2019, 34: 335-342.

[91] Safder M, Temelli F, Ullah A. Lipid-derived hybrid bionanocomposites from spent hens. Mater Today Commun, 2020, 25: 101327.

[92] Saketkhoo K, Januszkiewicz A, Sackner MA. Effects of drinking hot water, cold water, and chicken soup on nasal mucus velocity and nasal airflow resistance. Chest, 1978, 74(4): 408-410.

[93] Sangtherapitikul O (2004) Utilization of spent hens as a flavoring base. Master of Science, Mississippi State University, USA

[94] Sarkar B, Upadhyay S, Gogoi P, Das A, Hazarika M, Rahman Z, Datta A. Development and quality evaluation of instant soup mix incorporated with spent hen meat shred. Int J Livest Res, 2019, 7: 24-30.

[95] Sarkar B, Upadhyay S, Gogoi P, Datta A, Rahman Z, Chowdhury S. Utilization of spent hen meat for soup: a review. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci, 2019, 8(2): 2702-2709.

[96] Seidler, E. (2003). Egg marketing—a guide for the production and sale of eggs. Chapter 1—Egg production. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin.

[97] Semwogerere F, Neethling J, Muchenje V, Hoffman LC. Meat quality, fatty acid profile, and sensory attributes of spent laying hens fed expeller press canola meal or a conventional diet. Poult Sci, 2019, 98(9): 3557-3570.

[98] Shahbandeh M (2021) Number of chickens worldwide from 1990 to 2019. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/263962/number-of-chickens-worldwide-since-1990/. Accessed 31 July 2021

[99] Sharma S, Vaidya D. Application of kiwifruit protease enzyme for tenderization of spent hen chicken. J Pharmacogn Phytochem, 2018, 7: 581-584.

[100] Singh R, Rao K, Anjaneyulu A, Patil G. Moisture sorption properties of smoked chicken sausages from spent hen meat. Food Res Int, 2001, 34(2–3): 143-148.

[101] Singh T, Chatli MK, Mehta N, Kumar P, Malav OP. Effect of carrot powder on the quality attributes of fibre-enriched spent hen meat cutlets. J Anim Res, 2015, 5(4): 737-742.

[102] Sorapukdee S, Uesakulrungrueng C, Pilasombut K. Effects of humectant and roasting on physicochemical and sensory properties of jerky made from spent hen meat. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour, 2016, 36(3): 326.

[103] Spencer JL (2011) The effect of different intermediate amendments on pH, ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane emissions from composting poultry deadstock. University of Guelph.

[104] Toldrá F, Reig M, Aristoy M-C, Mora L. Generation of bioactive peptides during food processing. Food Chem, 2018, 267: 395-404.

[105] Udenigwe CC, Howard A. Meat proteome as source of functional biopeptides. Food Res Int, 2013, 54(1): 1021-1032.

[106] Udenigwe CC, Girgih AT, Mohan A, Gong M, Malomo SA, Aluko RE. Antihypertensive and bovine plasma oxidation-inhibitory activities of spent hen meat protein hydrolysates. J Food Biochem, 2017, 41(4): e12378.

[107] Umaraw P, Chauhan G. Quality characteristics of spent hen meat powder incorporated whole wheat breads. Nutr Food Sci, 2018, 48(4): 579-588.

[108] Wang C, Wu J. Preparation and characterization of adhesive from spent hen proteins. Int J Adhes Adhes, 2012, 36: 8-14.

[109] Wang H, Wu J, Betti M. Chemical, rheological and surface morphologic characterisation of spent hen proteins extracted by pH-shift processing with or without the presence of cryoprotectants. Food Chem, 2013, 139(1–4): 710-719.

[110] Wang X, Hong H, Wu J. Hen collagen hydrolysate alleviates UVA-induced damage in human dermal fibroblasts. J Funct Foods, 2019, 63: 103574.

[111] Wang X, Son M, Meram C, Wu J. Mechanism and potential of egg consumption and egg bioactive components on type-2 diabetes. Nutrients, 2019, 11(2): 357.

[112] Williams S, Damron B. Sensory and objective characteristics of broiler meat from commercial broilers fed rendered spent hen meal. Poult Sci, 1998, 77(9): 1441-1445.

[113] Williams S, Damron B. Sensory and fatty acid profile of eggs from commercial hens fed rendered spent hen meal. Poult Sci, 1999, 78(4): 614-617.

[114] Xiang H, Gao J, Yu B, Zhou H, Cai D, Zhang Y, . Early Holocene chicken domestication in northern China. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 2014, 111(49): 17564-17569.

[115] Xu Q, Singh N, Hong H, Yan X, Yu W, Jiang X, . Hen protein-derived peptides as the blockers of human bitter taste receptors T2R4, T2R7 and T2R14. Food Chem, 2019, 283: 621-627.

[116] Yu W, Field CJ, Wu J. Purification and identification of anti-inflammatory peptides from spent hen muscle proteins hydrolysate. Food Chem, 2018, 253: 101-107.

[117] Yu W, Field CJ, Wu J. A spent hen muscle protein hydrolysate: a potential IL-10 stimulator in a murine model. Food Funct, 2018, 9(9): 4714-4719.

[118] Yusop SM, Nadalian M, Babji AS, Mustapha WAW, Forghani B, Azman MA. Production of antihypertensive elastin peptides from waste poultry skin. Int J Food Eng, 2016, 2: 21-25.

[119] Zahara I, Arshad M, Anne MN, Siddique T, Ullah A. Feather keratin derived sorbents for the treatment of wastewater produced during energy generation processes. Chemosphere, 2021, 273: 128545.

[120] Zubair M (2017). Proteins derived bionanocomposites from poultry by-product for food packaging applications. Master of Science, University of Alberta. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

[121] Zubair M, Wu J, Ullah A. Hybrid bionanocomposites from spent hen proteins. ACS Omega, 2019, 4(2): 3772-3781.

Funding

Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada

Alberta Innovates - Technology Futures

Killam Trusts

American Oil Chemists’ Society (AOCS)