Sc-CO₂ extraction of fish and fish by-products in the production of fish oil and enzyme

Abstract

Supercritical carbon dioxide (Sc-CO₂) is an alternative tool to extract lipid for the production of fish oil and enzyme from fish by-products (FBPs). In the application of Sc-CO₂, this review covers sample preparation, lipid extraction operation, and characterization of fish oil and enzyme as final products. Generally, the fish samples with moisture content less than 20% and particle size less than 5 mm are considered before lipid extraction with Sc-CO₂. Sc-CO₂ parameters, such as pressure (P), temperature (T), extraction time (t_ext), and flow rate (F), for simultaneous recovery of fish oil, protein, and enzyme were found to be less severe (P: 10.3–25 MPa; T: 25–45 °C, t_ext: 20–150 min; F: 3–50 g/min) than the extraction of fish oil alone (P: 10–40 Mpa; T: 35–80 °C; t_ext: 30–360 min; F: 1–3000 g/min). The enzyme from the Sc-CO₂ defatted sample showed higher activity up to 45 U/mg due to lower denaturation of protein as compared to the organic solvent treated sample albeit both samples having similar pH (6–10) and temperature stability (20–60 °C). Overall, mild extraction of lipid from FBPs using Sc-CO₂ is effective for the production of enzymes suitable in various industrial applications. Also, fish oil as a result of extraction can be produced as a health product with high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and low contamination of heavy metals.

Keywords

Sc-CO₂ / Digestive enzymes / Fish by-products / Defatted / Protein / Fish oil

References

[1] Abe K, Yuan C, Kumagai Y, Kishimura H. The potential of freshwater fish viscus from silver carp hypophthalmichthys molitrix for trypsin source. Waste Biomass Valorization, 2020, 11: 3971-3978.

[2] Adeoti IA, Hawboldt K. A review of lipid extraction from fish processing by-product for use as a biofuel. Biomass Bioenerg, 2014, 63: 330-340.

[3] Ahmed R, Haq M, Cho YJ, Chun BS. Quality evaluation of oil recovered from by-products of bigeye tuna using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Turkish J Fish Aquat Sci, 2017, 17: 663-672.

[4] Alfio VG, Manzo C, Micillo R. From fish waste to value: an overview of the sustainable recovery of omega-3 for food supplements. Molecules, 2021, 26: 1002.

[5] Ali-Nehari A, Kim SB, Lee YB, Chun BS. Digestive enzymes characterization of krill (Euphausia superba) residues deoiled by supercritical carbon dioxide and organic solvents. J Ind Eng Chem, 2012, 18: 1314-1319.

[6] Al-Jabari M. Kinetic models of supercritical fluid extraction. J Sep Sci, 2002, 25(8): 477-189.

[7] Anklam E, Berg H, Mathiasson L, . Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) in food analysis: a review. Food Addit Contam, 1998, 15: 729-750.

[8] Arbex AK, Bizarro VR, Santos JCS, . The impact of the essential fatty acids (EFA) in human health. Open J Endocr Metab Dis, 2015, 5: 98-104.

[9] Asaduzzaman AKM, Chun BS. Characterization of digestive enzymes from de-oiled mackerel (Scomber japonicus) muscle obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide and n-hexane extraction as a comparative study. J Food Sci Technol, 2015, 52: 3494-3503.

[10] Azwanida NN. A review on the extraction methods use in medicinal plants, principle, strength and limitation. Med Aromat Plants, 2015, 4: 1-6.

[11] Bezerra RS, Lins EJ, Alencar RB, . Alkaline proteinase from intestine of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Process Biochem, 2005, 40: 1829-1834.

[12] Bhaskar N, Sathisha AD, Sachindra NM, . Effect of acid ensiling on the stability of visceral waste proteases of Indian major carp Labeo rohita. J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 2007, 16: 73-86.

[13] Brunner G. Supercritical fluids: technology and application to food processing. J Food Eng, 2005, 67: 21-33.

[14] Brunner G (1994) Gas extraction. An introduction to fundamentals of supercritical fluids and the application to separation processes. Steinkopff/Springer, Darm- stadt/New York

[15] Budisa N, Schulze-Makuch D. Supercritical carbon dioxide and its potential as a life-sustaining solvent in a planetary environment. Life, 2014, 4: 331-340.

[16] Catchpole O, Moreno T, Montañes F, Tallon S. Perspectives on processing of high value lipids using supercritical fluids. J Supercrit Fluids, 2018, 134: 260-268.

[17] Chaijaroen T, Thongruang C. Extraction, characterization and activity of digestive enzyme from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) viscera waste. Int Food Res J, 2016, 23: 1432-1438.

[18] Chaijaroen T (2015) Functional and biological properties of enzymatic hydrolysate from defatted rice bran by using partial purified nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) viscera extract. Doctoral Diss Prince Songkla Univ

[19] Chun BS, Kishimura H, Kanzawa H, . Application of supercritical carbon dioxide for preparation of starfish phospholipase A₂. Process Biochem, 2010, 45: 689-693.

[20] Chun BS, Kishimura H, Nalinanon S, . Mackerel trypsin purified from defatted viscera by supercritical carbon dioxide. J Amino Acids, 2011

[21] Ciriminna R, Meneguzzo F, Delisi R, Pagliaro M. Enhancing and improving the extraction of omega-3 from fish oil. Sustain Chem Pharm, 2017, 5: 54-59.

[22] Da Silva RP, Rocha-Santos TA, Duarte AC. Supercritical fluid extraction of bioactive compounds. TrAC Trends Anal Chem, 2016, 76: 40-51.

[23] Dewan SS (2017) Global markets for enzymes in industrial applications. BCC Research: Wellesly, MA, USA. https://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/biotechnology/enzymes-industrial-applications-report-bio030j.html. Accessed 3 Sept 2021

[24] Dornelles LP, de Souza MDFD, da Silva PM, . Purification and characterization of a protease from the visceral mass of Mytella charruana and its evaluation to obtain antimicrobial peptides. Food Chem, 2018, 245: 1169-1175.

[25] Dunford NT, Temelli F, LeBlanc EILEEN. Supercritical CO₂ extraction of oil and residual proteins from Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) as affected by moisture content. J Food Sci, 1997, 62: 289-294.

[26] Dunforda NT, Goto M, Temelli F. Modeling of oil extraction with supercritical CO₂ from Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) at different moisture contents. J Supercrit Fluids, 1998, 13: 303-309.

[27] El-Beltagy AE, El-Adawy TA, Rahma EH, El-Bedawey AA. Purification and characterization of an alkaline protease from the viscera of bolti fish (Tilapia nilotica). J Food Biochem, 2005, 29: 445-458.

[28] Ermis E. Halal status of enzymes used in food industry. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2017, 64: 69-73.

[29] FAO. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020, 2020, Rome: Sustainability in action.

[30] Ferdosh S, Sarker ZI, Norulaini N, . Quality of tuna fish oils extracted from processing the by-products of three species of neritic tuna using supercritical carbon dioxide. J Food Process Preserv, 2015, 39: 432-441.

[31] Ferrentino G, Ndayishimiye J, Haman N, Scampicchio M. Functional activity of oils from brewer’s spent grain extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2019, 12: 789-798.

[32] Geethanjali S, Subash A. Comparative study on precipitation techniques for protease isolation and purification from Labeo rohita viscera. J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 2013, 22: 121-128.

[33] Geethanjali S, Subash A. Isolation and purification of protease from Labeo rohita viscera. Indian J Biochem Biophys, 2018, 55: 222-226.

[34] Guerrand D (2018) Economics of food and feed enzymes. In: Enzymes in human and animal nutrition. Elsevier, pp 487–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805419-2.00026-5

[35] Gurumallesh P, Alagu K, Ramakrishnan B, Muthusamy S. A systematic reconsideration on proteases. Int J Biol Macromol, 2019, 128: 254-267.

[36] Haard NF, Simpson BK. Proteases from aquatic organisms and their uses in the seafood industry. Fisheries Processing, 1994, Boston: Springer, 132-154.

[37] Habulin M, Knez Ž. Activity and stability of lipases from different sources in supercritical carbon dioxide and near-critical propane. J Chem Technol Biotechnol, 2001, 76: 1260-1266.

[38] Hajeb P, Jinap S, Shakibazadeh S, . Optimisation of the supercritical extraction of toxic elements in fish oil. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 2014, 31: 1712-1722.

[39] Hajeb P, Selamat J, Afsah-Hejri L, . Effect of supercritical fluid extraction on the reduction of toxic elements in fish oil compared with other extraction methods. J Food Prot, 2015, 78: 172-179.

[40] Haq M, Chun BS. Characterization of phospholipids extracted from Atlantic salmon by-product using supercritical CO₂ with ethanol as co-solvent. J Clean Prod, 2018, 178: 186-195.

[41] Haq M, Ahmed R, Cho YJ, Chun BS. Quality properties and bio-potentiality of edible oils from atlantic salmon by-products extracted by supercritial carbon dioxide and conventional methods. Waste Biomass Valorization, 2017, 8: 1953-1967.

[42] Hardardottir I, Kinsella JE. Extraction of lipid and cholesterol from fish muscle with supercritical fluids. J Food Sci, 1988, 53: 1656-1658.

[43] Hawthorne SB, Miller DJ, Langenfeld JJ. Jinno K. Chapter 12 Advances in analytical supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). Hyphenated techniques in supercritical fluid chromatography and extraction, 1992 Elsevier, 225-254.

[44] He HP, Corke H, Cai JG. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of oil and squalene from Amaranthus grain. J Agric Food Chem, 2003, 51: 7921-7925.

[45] Hematyar N, Rustad T, Sampels S, Kastrup Dalsgaard T. Relationship between lipid and protein oxidation in fish. Aquac Res, 2019, 50: 1393-1403.

[46] Herrero M, Castro-Puyana M, Mendiola JA, Ibañez E. Compressed fluids for the extraction of bioactive compounds. TrAC Trends Anal Chem, 2013, 43: 67-83.

[47] Ideia P, Pinto J, Ferreira R, . Fish processing industry residues: a review of valuable products extraction and characterization methods. Waste Biomass Valorization, 2020, 11: 3223-3246.

[48] Idris SA, Markom M (2019) An overview of the Gynura procumbens leaves extraction and potential of hybrid predictive tools application for prediction and simulation in supercritical fluid extraction. Rasāyan J Chem 12:1235–1246. https://doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2019.1235138

[49] Ismail N, Jaafar NA. Extraction and purification of protease from silver catfish (Pangasius sutchi) viscera. Sci Lett, 2018, 12: 17-29.

[50] Ivanovs K, Blumberga D. Extraction of fish oil using green extraction methods: a short review. Energy Procedia, 2017, 128: 477-483.

[51] Jellouli K, Bougatef A, Daassi D, . New alkaline trypsin from the intestine of Grey triggerfish (Balistes capriscus) with high activity at low temperature: purification and characterisation. Food Chem, 2009, 116: 644-650.

[52] Johannsen M, Brunner G. Supercritical fluid chromatographic separation on preparative scale and in continuous mode. J Supercrit Fluids, 2018, 134: 61-70.

[53] John MTE, Rebry MRM, Yan KL, et al (2013) Measurement of environmental contaminants in a globally—representative sample of fish oil supplements. White Pap Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc ; Glob Organ EPA DHA Omega-3s [GOED], p. 1–33

[54] Kamat S, Barrera J, Beckman J, Russell AJ. Biocatalytic synthesis of acrylates in organic solvents and supercritical fluids: I. Optimization of enzyme environment. Biotechnol Bioeng, 1992, 40: 158-166.

[55] Kamat SV, Beckman EJ, Russell AJ. Enzyme activity in supercritical fluids. Crit Rev Biotechnol, 1995, 15: 41-71.

[56] Kang KY, Ahn DH, Jung SM, . Separation of protein and fatty acids from tuna viscera using supercritical carbon dioxide. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng, 2005, 10: 315-321.

[57] Kanner J, Rosenthal I. An assessment of lipid oxidation in foods (Technical Report). Pure Appl Chem, 1992, 64: 1959-1964.

[58] Ketnawa S, Benjakul S, Ling TC, . Enhanced recovery of alkaline protease from fish viscera by phase partitioning and its application. Chem Cent J, 2013, 7: 1-9.

[59] Ketnawa S, Benjakul S, Martínez-Alvarez O, Rawdkuen S. Three-phase partitioning and proteins hydrolysis patterns of alkaline proteases derived from fish viscera. Sep Purif Technol, 2014, 132: 174-181.

[60] Khaled HB, Ghorbel-Bellaaj O, Hmidet N, . A novel aspartic protease from the viscera of Sardinelle (Sardinella aurita): purification and characterisation. Food Chem, 2011, 128: 847-853.

[61] Khandagale AS, Sarojini BK, Kumari SN, . Isolation, purification, and biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indian mackerel (Rastralliger kanagurta). J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 2015, 24: 354-367.

[62] Khaw KY, Parat MO, Shaw PN, Falconer JR. Solvent supercritical fluid technologies to extract bioactive compounds from natural sources: a review. Molecules, 2017, 22: 1186.

[63] Kim SK, Dewapriya P. Kim SK. Enzymes from fish processing waste materials and their commercial applications. Seafood processing by-products, 2014, New York: Springer, 183-196.

[64] Kishimura H, Hayashi K. Isolation and characteristics of phospholipase A₂ from the pyloric ceca of the starfish Asterina pectinifera. Comp Biochem Physiol Part B Biochem Mol Biol, 1999, 124: 483-488.

[65] Kishimura H, Tokuda Y, Klomklao S, . Enzymatic characteristics of trypsin from pyloric ceca of spotted mackerel (Scomber australasicus). J Food Biochem, 2006, 30: 466-477.

[66] Klomklao S, Benjakul S, Kishimura H. Proteinases in hybrid catfish viscera: characterization and effect of extraction media. J Food Biochem, 2010, 34: 711-729.

[67] Klomklao S, Benjakul S, Kishimura H, Chaijan M. 24kDa Trypsin: a predominant protease purified from the viscera of hybrid catfish (Clarias macrocephalus ×Clarias gariepinus). Food Chem, 2011, 129: 739-746.

[68] Kossiakoff AA, Chambers JL, Kay LM, Stroud RM. Structure of bovine trypsinogen at 1.9 Å resolution. Biochemistry, 1977, 16: 654-664.

[69] Kudre T, Thongraung C. Organic solvent and laundry detergent stable crude protease from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) viscera. J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 2014, 23: 87-100.

[70] Kumari A, Kaur B, Srivastava R, Sangwan RS. Isolation and immobilization of alkaline protease on mesoporous silica and mesoporous ZSM-5 zeolite materials for improved catalytic properties. Biochem Biophys Rep, 2015, 2: 108-114.

[71] Kuvendziev S, Lisichkov K, Zeković Z, . Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) tissues. J Supercrit Fluids, 2018, 133: 528-534.

[72] Lamas DL (2015) Characterization of proteolytic enzymes from Sparus aurata L. viscera, obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide, mechanical and n-hexane extraction methods. J Agric Environ Sci 4:8–17. https://doi.org/10.15640/jaes.v4n2a2

[73] Lee WJ, Suleiman N, Hadzir NHN, Chong GH (2020) Supercritical fluids for the extraction of oleoresins and plant phenolics. Elsevier Inc.

[74] Lembke P (2011) OMEGA-3. Concentrating omega-3 oils—supercritical fluid technology versus molecular distillation. Germany

[75] Lisichkov K, Kuvendziev S, Zeković Z, Marinkovski M. Influence of operating parameters on the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of bioactive components from common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) viscera. Sep Purif Technol, 2014, 138: 191-197.

[76] Matsushita S, Kobayashi M, Nitta Y. Inactivation of enzymes by linoleic acid hydroperoxides and linoleic acid. Agric Biol Chem, 1970, 34: 817-824.

[77] Melgosa R, Sanz MT, Beltran S. Supercritical CO₂ processing of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids—towards a biorefinery for fish waste valorization. J Supercrit Fluids, 2021, 169.

[78] Melgosa R, Sanz MT, Solaesa ÁG, et al (2017) Supercritical carbon dioxide as solvent in the lipase-catalyzed ethanolysis of fish oil: Kinetic study. J CO2 Util 17:170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2016.11.011

[79] Mohanty B, Mohanty U, Pattanaik SS, . Future prospects and trends for effective utilization of fish processing wastes in India. Innov Farming, 2018, 3: 1-5.

[80] Molino A, Mehariya S, Iovine A, et al (2018) Extraction of astaxanthin and lutein from microalga Haematococcus pluvialis in the red phase using CO₂ supercritical fluid extraction technology with ethanol as co-solvent. Mar Drugs 16:432. https://doi.org/10.3390/md16110432

[81] Moyler DA (1993) Extraction of flavours and fragrances with compressed CO2. In extraction of natural products using near-critical solvents. In: Springer, Dordrecht. pp 140–183

[82] Murthy LN, Phadke GG, Unnikrishnan P, . Valorization of fish viscera for crude proteases production and its use in bioactive protein hydrolysate preparation. Waste Biomass Valorization, 2018, 9: 1735-1746.

[83] Naveed M, Nadeem F, Mehmood T, . Protease—a versatile and ecofriendly biocatalyst with multi-industrial applications: an updated review. Catal Letters, 2021, 151: 307-323.

[84] Nejad-Sadeghi M, Taji S, Goodarznia I. Optimization of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of essential oil from Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss: an endangered medicinal plant in Iran. J Chromatogr A, 2015, 1422: 73-81.

[85] Oyeleke SB, Auta SH. Screening of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus strains for extracellular protease enzyme production. J Microbiol Antimicrob, 2010, 2: 83-87.

[86] Park PJ, Lee SH, Byun HG, . Purification and characterization of a collagenase from the mackerel, Scomber japonicus. J Biochem Mol Biol, 2002, 35: 576-582.

[87] Park JY, Back SS, Chun BS. Fatty acids and protein recovery of squid viscera with supercritical carbon dioxide. J Mar Biosci Biotechnol, 2006, 1: 206-212.

[88] Park JY, Back SS, Chun BS. Protein properties of mackerel viscera extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide. J Environ Biol, 2008, 29: 443-448.

[89] Pathak SP, Pande GD, Mathur SS. The component acids of the fats of some Indian fresh-water fishes. Biochem J, 1954, 57: 449-453.

[90] Patil D. Recent trends in production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) concentrates. J Food Res Technol, 2014, 2: 15-23.

[91] Pereira CG, Meireles MAA. Economic analysis of rosemary, fennel and anise essential oils obtained by supercritical fluid extraction. Flavour Fragr J, 2007, 22: 407-413.

[92] Poonsin T, Simpson BK, Benjakul S, . Albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) spleen trypsin partitioning in an aqueous two-phase system and its hydrolytic pattern on Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) shells. Int J Food Prop, 2017, 20: 2409-2422.

[93] Raventós M, Duarte S, Alarcón R. Application and possibilities of supercritical CO₂ extraction in food processing industry: an overview. Food Sci Technol Int, 2002, 8: 269-284.

[94] Rawdkuen S, Vanabun A, Benjakul S. Recovery of proteases from the viscera of farmed giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) by three-phase partitioning. Process Biochem, 2012, 47: 2566-2569.

[95] Reverchon E, De Marco I. Supercritical fluid extraction and fractionation of natural matter. J Supercrit Fluids, 2006, 38: 146-166.

[96] Rubio-Rodríguez N, Sara M, Beltrán S, . Supercritical fluid extraction of the omega-3 rich oil contained in hake (Merluccius capensis–Merluccius paradoxus) by-products: study of the influence of process parameters on the extraction yield and oil quality. J Supercrit Fluids, 2008, 47: 215-226.

[97] Rubio-Rodríguez N, Sara M, Beltrán S, . Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from fish by-products: a comparison with other extraction methods. J Food Eng, 2012, 109: 238-248.

[98] Said PP, Arya OP, Pradhan RC, . Separation of oleoresin from ginger rhizome powder using green processing technologies. J Food Process Eng, 2015, 38: 107-114.

[99] Salazar-Leyva JA, Lizardi-Mendoza J, Ramirez-Suarez JC, . Catalytic and operational stability of acidic proteases from monterey sardine (Sardinops sagax caerulea) immobilized on a partially deacetylated chitin support. J Food Biochem, 2017, 41: 12287.

[100] Sánchez-Camargo AP, Meireles MÂA, Lopes BLF, Cabral FA. Proximate composition and extraction of carotenoids and lipids from Brazilian redspotted shrimp waste (Farfantepenaeus paulensis). J Food Eng, 2011, 102: 87-93.

[101] Sánchez-Camargo AP, Meireles MÂA, Ferreira AL, . Extraction of ω-3 fatty acids and astaxanthin from Brazilian redspotted shrimp waste using supercritical CO₂+ethanol mixtures. J Supercrit Fluids, 2012, 61: 71-77.

[102] Sanromán MA, Deive FJ (2017) Food enzymes. In: Current developments in biotechnology and bioengineering. Elsevier, pp 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63666-9.00005-4

[103] Sarker MZI, Selamat J, Habib ASM, . Optimization of supercritical CO₂ extraction of fish oil from viscera of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Int J Mol Sci, 2012, 13: 11312-11322.

[104] Shahidi F, Kamil YJ. Enzymes from fish and aquatic invertebrates and their application in the food industry. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2001, 12: 435-464.

[105] Shalaby MT, Osheba AS, Khalil MM, . Extraction and purification of alkaline protease from mullet fish (Mugil cephalus) viscera and its biochemical characteristics. Egypt J Food Sci, 2016, 44: 29-46.

[106] Sila A, Nasri R, Jridi M, . Characterisation of trypsin purified from the viscera of Tunisian barbel (Barbus callensis) and its application for recovery of carotenoproteins from shrimp wastes. Food Chem, 2012, 132: 1287-1295.

[107] Silva EK, Meireles MAA, Saldaña MD. Supercritical carbon dioxide technology: a promising technique for the non-thermal processing of freshly fruit and vegetable juices. Trends Food Sci Technol, 2020, 97: 381-390.

[108] Sriket C. Proteases in fish and shellfish: role on muscle softening and prevention. Int Food Res J, 2014, 21: 433-445.

[109] Staby A, Mollerup J. Separation of constituents of fish oil using supercritical fluids: a review of experimental solubility, extraction, and chromatographic data. Fluid Phase Equilib, 1993, 91: 349-386.

[110] Tanaka Y, Sakaki I, Ohkubo T. Extraction of phospholipids from salmon roe with supercritical carbon dioxide and an entrainer. J Oleo Sci, 2004, 53: 417-424.

[111] Temelli F. Perspectives on supercritical fluid processing of fats and oils. J Supercrit Fluids, 2009, 47: 583-590.

[112] Temelli F, Güçlü‐Üstündağ Ö, Couto R (2005) Progress in supercritical fluid technology for fats and oils processing. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products. Wiley, pp 1–34

[113] Uddin MS, Ahn HM, Kishimura H, Chun BS. Comparative study of digestive enzymes of squid (Todarodes pacificus) viscera after supercritical carbon dioxide and organic solvent extraction. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng, 2009, 14: 338-344.

[114] Uddin MS, Sarker MZI, Ferdosh S, . Phytosterols and their extraction from various plant matrices using supercritical carbon dioxide: a review. J Sci Food Agric, 2015, 95: 1385-1394.

[115] Vannabun A, Ketnawa S, Phongthai S, . Characterization of acid and alkaline proteases from viscera of farmed giant catfish. Food Biosci, 2014, 6: 9-16.

[116] Vaquero EM, Beltrán S, Sanz MT. Extraction of fat from pigskin with supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids, 2006, 37: 142-150.

[117] Veggi PC, Prado JM, Bataglion GA, . Obtaining phenolic compounds from jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril L.) bark by supercritical fluid extraction. J Supercrit Fluids, 2014, 89: 68-77.

[118] Wimmer Z, Zarevúcka M. A review on the effects of supercritical carbon dioxide on enzyme activity. Int J Mol Sci, 2010, 11: 233-253.

[119] Wrona O, Rafińska K, Walczak-Skierska J, . Extraction and determination of polar bioactive compounds from alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) using supercritical techniques. Molecules, 2019, 24: 4608.

[120] Zamani A, Benjakul S. Trypsin from unicorn leatherjacket (Aluterus monoceros) pyloric caeca: purification and its use for preparation of fish protein hydrolysate with antioxidative activity. J Sci Food Agric, 2016, 96: 962-969.

[121] Zhang K, Wei R, Song R. Extraction of cathepsin D-like protease from neon flying squid (Ommastrephes bartramii) viscera and application in antioxidant hydrolysate production. Biomolecules, 2019, 9: 228.

[122] Zhang X, Han B, Hou Z, et al (2002) Why do co‐solvents enhance the solubility of solutes in supercritical fluids? New evidence and opinion. Chem A Eur J 8:5107–5111. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3765(20021115)8:22<5107::AID-CHEM5107>3.0.CO;2-0

Funding

Fundamental Research Grant Scheme FRGS/1/2018/ STG 05/UiTM/02/1(Fundamental Research Grant Scheme FRGS/1/2018/ STG 05/UiTM/02/1)