Densification of agro-residues for sustainable energy generation: an overview

Abstract

The global demand for sustainable energy is increasing due to urbanization, industrialization, population, and developmental growth. Transforming the large quantities of biomass resources such as agro-residues/wastes could raise the energy supply and promote energy mix. Residues of biomass instituted in the rural and industrial centers are enormous, and poor management of these residues results in several indescribable environmental threats. The energy potential of these residues can provide job opportunities and income for nations. The generation and utilization of dissimilar biomass as feedstock for energy production via densification could advance the diversity of energy crops. An increase in renewable and clean energy demand will likely increase the request for biomass residues for renewable energy generation via densification. This will reduce the environmental challenges associated with burning and dumping of these residues in an open field. Densification is the process of compacting particles together through the application of pressure to form solid fuels. Marketable densification is usually carried out using conventional pressure-driven processes such as extrusion, screw press, piston type, hydraulic piston press, roller press, and pallet press (ring and flat die). Based on compaction, densification methods can be categorized into high-pressure, medium-pressure, and low-pressure compactions. The common densification processes are briquetting, pelletizing, bailing, and cubing. They manufacture solid fuel with desirable fuel characteristics—physical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and combustion characteristics. Fuel briquettes and pellets have numerous advantages and applications both in domestic and industrial settings. However, for biomass to be rationally and efficiently utilized as solid fuel, it must be characterized to determine its fuel properties. Herein, an overview of the densification of biomass residues as a source of sustainable energy is presented.

Keywords

Biomass / Briquetting / Densification / Fuel / Feedstock / Pelletizing / Sustainable energy

References

[1] Achinas S, Horjus J, Achinas V, Jan G, Euverink W. A PESTLE analysis of biofuels energy industry in Europe. Sustainability, 2019, 11: 1-24.

[2] Adeleke AA, Odusote JK, Lasode OA, Ikubanni PP, Malathi M, Paswan D. Mild pyrolytic treatment of Gmelina arborea for optimum energetic yields. Cogent Eng Mater Eng, 2019, 6(1): 1593073.

[3] Adu-gyam R, Agyin-birikorang S, Tindjina I, Manu Y, Singh U. Minimizing nutrient leaching from maize production systems in northern Ghana with one-time application of multi-nutrient fertilizer briquettes. Sci Total Environ J, 2019, 694: 1-10.

[4] Afra E, Abyaz A, Saraeyan A. The production of bagasse biofuel briquettes and the evaluation of natural binders (LNFC, NFC, and lignin) effects on their technical parameters. J Clean Prod, 2021, 278: 1-5.

[5] Afsal A, David R, Baiju V, Suhail NM, Parvathy U, Rakhi RB. Experimental investigations on combustion characteristics of fuel briquettes made from vegetable market waste and saw dust. Mater Today Proc, 2020, 33: 3826-3831.

[6] Ahiduzzaman M, SadrulIslam AKM. Development of biomass stove for heating up die barrel of rice husk briquette machine. Proc Eng, 2013, 56: 777-781.

[7] Ahmed S, Rahman MM, Islam MM, Mashud M, Nawsher M, Ali M (2008) Moral role of biomass briquetting in the renewable energy sector and poverty diminution for Bangladesh. In: Proc. 4th BSME-ASME Int Conf Therm Eng vol 27–29 Dec

[8] Ahmad A, Riquettes OB, Io FORB, Roduction YP. Gasification of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) briquettes for bio-syngas production. J Teknol, 2016, 78(8–3): 83-88.

[9] Ajiboye TK, Abdulkareem S, Anibijuwon AOY. Investigation of mechanical properties of briquette product of sawdust-charcoal as a potential domestic energy source. J Appl Sci Environ Manag, 2016, 20(4): 1179-1188.

[10] Ajimotokan HA, Ibitoye SE, Odusote JK, Adesoye OA, Omoniyi PO. Physico-mechanical characterisation of fuel briquettes made from blends of corncob and rice husk. J Phys Conf Ser, 2019, 1378(02200): 1-12.

[11] Ajimotokan HA, Ehindero AO, Ajao KS, Adeleke AA, Ikubanni PP. Combustion characteristics of fuel briquettes made from charcoal particles and sawdust agglomerates. Sci African, 2019, 6: 1-9.

[12] Ajimotokan HA, Ibitoye SE, Odusote JK, Adesoye OA, Omoniyi PO. Physico-mechanical properties of composite briquettes from corncob and rice. J Bioresour Bioprod, 2019, 4(3): 159-165.

[13] Ajobo JA. Densification characteristics of groundnut shell. Int J Mech Ind Technol, 2014, 2(1): 150-154.

[14] Akande OM, Olorunnisola AO. Potential of briquetting as a waste-management option for handling market-generated vegetable. Recycl Artic, 2018, 3(11): 1-13.

[15] Akogu OA, Waheed MA. Property upgrades of some raw Nigerian biomass through torrefaction pre-treatment—a review. J Phys Conf Ser, 2019, 1378(03202): 1-15.

[16] Alaru M, . Lignin content and briquette quality of different fibre hemp plant types and energy sunflower. Field Crop Res, 2011, 124(3): 332-339.

[17] Alhassan EA, Olaoye JO. Briquetting characteristics of some agricultural residues using starch as a binder. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manag, 2015, 8(6): 692-707.

[18] Anukam AI, Goso BP, Okoh OO, Mamphweli SN. Studies on characterization of corn cob for application in a gasification process for energy production. J Chem, 2017, 2017: 1-9.

[19] Annual Reporting on Renewables: Renewables 2015 global status report. REN21, 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.ren21.net/wp-%0Acontent/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf

[20] Asamoah B, Nikiema J, Gebrezgabher S, Odonkor E, Njenga M (2016) A review on production, marketing and use of fuel briquettes

[21] Azargohar R, . Effects of bio-additives on the physicochemical properties and mechanical behavior of canola hull fuel pellets. Renew Energy, 2019, 132: 296-307.

[22] Bajwa DS, Peterson T, Sharma N, Shojaeiarani J, Bajwa SG. A review of densified solid biomass for energy production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 96: 296-305.

[23] Barriocanal C. Mechanical strength of bio-coke from briquettes. Renew Energy, 2020, 146: 1717-1724.

[24] Bazargan A, Rough SL, Mckay G. Compaction of palm kernel shell biochars for application as solid fuel. Biomass Bioenerg, 2014, 70: 489-497.

[25] Berdychowski M, Tala K, Wojtkowiak D. Experimental and numerical analysis of the effect of compaction conditions on briquette properties. Fuel, 2021, 288: 1-19.

[26] Bermudez JM, Fidalgo B (2016) Production of bio-syngas and bio-hydrogen via gasification. In: Handbook of biofuels production, London, United Kingdom: Centre for Bioenergy and Resource Management, Cranfield University, Bedford, United Kingdom. pp. 431–494

[27] Bhattacharya SC, Salam PA (2014) A review of selected biomass energy technologies: gasification, combustion, carbonization and densification. Thailand: Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment and Climate

[28] Biogas trends for this year (2021) European Biogas Association, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.europeanbiogas.eu/biogas-trends-for-this-year/

[29] Cabrales H, Arzola N, Araque O. The effects of moisture content, fiber length and compaction time on African oil palm empty fruit bunches briquette quality parameters. Heliyon, 2020, 6: 1-11.

[30] Cheng W, Zhu Y, Zhang W, Wu G. Mitigation of ultrafine particulate matter emission from agricultural biomass pellet combustion by the additive of phosphoric acid modified kaolin. Renew Energy, 2021, 172: 177-187.

[31] Chico-santamarta L, Chaney K, Godwin RJ, White DR, Humphries AC. Physical quality changes during the storage of canola (Brassica napus L.) straw pellets. Appl Energy, 2012, 95: 220-226.

[32] Chou CS, Lin SH, Lu WC. The optimum conditions for preparing solid fuel briquette of rice straw by a piston-mold process using the Taguchi method. Fuel Process Technol, 2009, 90(7–8): 1041-1046.

[33] Chungcharoen T, Srisang N. Preparation and characterization of fuel briquettes made from dual agricultural waste: cashew nut shells and areca nuts. J Clean Prod J, 2020, 256: 1-15.

[34] Cong H, . Co-combustion, co-densification, and pollutant emission characteristics of charcoal-based briquettes prepared using bio-tar as a binder. Fuel, 2021, 287: 1-10.

[35] Cong H, Yao Z, Zhao L. Co-combustion, co-densification, and pollutant emission characteristics of charcoal-based briquettes prepared using bio-tar as a binder. Fuel, 2021, 287: 1-10.

[36] Crawford NC, Ray AE, Yancey NA, Nagle N. Evaluating the pelletization of ‘pure’ and blended lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks. Fuel Process Technol, 2015, 140: 46-56.

[37] Czeka W, . The energy value and economic efficiency of solid biofuels produced from digestate and sawdust. Energy, 2018, 159: 1118-1122.

[38] Deiana AC, Granados DL, Petkovic LM, Sardella MF, Silva HS. Use of grape must as a binder to obtain activated carbon briquettes. Brazilian J Chem Eng, 2004, 21(04): 585-591.

[39] Deshannavar UB, Hegde PG, Dhalayat Z, Patil V, Gavas S. Materials science for energy technologies production and characterization of agro-based briquettes and estimation of calorific value by regression analysis: an energy application. Mater Sci Energy Technol, 2018, 1: 175-181.

[40] Dhote L, Mandpe A, Paliya S, Kumar S, Pandey RA. Characterization of distillery sludge for its thermal properties and ascertaining its utilization as a low-cost fuel. J Clean Prod, 2020, 259: 120872.

[41] Djatkov D, Martinov M, Kaltschmitt M. Biomass and bioenergy influencing parameters on mechanical–physical properties of pellet fuel made from corn harvest residues. Biomass Bioenerg, 2018, 119: 418-428.

[42] Donepudi Y (2017) Impact of pretreatment methods on fast pyrolysis of biomass. Diss. Master’s Theses, Michigan Technol. Univ., pp. 1–128

[43] EIA (2021) Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics: Petroleum-International Energy Administration (IEA)

[44] Espuelas S, Marcelino S, Echeverría AM, Castillo JM, Seco A. Low energy spent coffee grounds briquetting with organic binders for biomass fuel manufacturing. Fuel, 2020, 278: 118310.

[45] Europe biodiesel market—growth, trends, covid-19 impact, and forecasts (2021–2026), Mordor Intelligence, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/europe-biodiesel-market

[46] Faverzani R, . Briquettes of citrus peel and rice husk. J Clean Prod J, 2020, 276: 1-9.

[47] Gado IH, Ouiminga Daho SK, Daho T, Yonli AH, Sougoti M, Koulidiati J (2013) Characterization of briquettes coming from compaction of paper and cardboard waste at low and medium pressures. Waste Biomass Valor pp. 1–12

[48] Gauthier G (2015) EU pellets market after 2014–2015 winter. The International Pellets Workshop-Challenges and Innovation for market, Cologne.

[49] Gauthier G et al. (2017) Pellet market overview. Brussels

[50] Gehrig M, Wöhler M, Pelz S, Steinbrink J, Thorwarth H. Kaolin as additive in wood pellet combustion with several mixtures of spruce and short-rotation-coppice willow and its influence on emissions and ashes. Fuel, 2019, 235: 610-616.

[51] Ghaffar S, Nasir A, Azhar MA, Farid MU. Physico-thermal characterization of biomass materials of different nature of briquettes. J Agric Res, 2015, 53(4): 555-565.

[52] Gilvari H, De Jong W, Schott DL. Quality parameters relevant for densification of bio-materials: measuring methods and affecting factors—a review. Biomass Bioenerg, 2019, 120: 117-134.

[53] Goulart B, Maia DO. Use of banana culture waste to produce briquettes. Chem Eng Trans, 2013, 32: 349-354.

[54] Graham S, Eastwick C, Snape C, Quick W. Mechanical degradation of biomass wood pellets during long term stockpile storage. Fuel Process Technol, 2017, 160: 143-151.

[55] Grover PD, Mishra SK (1996) Biomass briquetting: technology and practices. No. 46. Asia, Bangkok, Thailand: FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme

[56] Grover PD, Mishra SK (1996) Biomass briquetting: technology and practices. No. 46. Bangkok, Thailand

[57] Hu X, Pina A, Ferrão P, Fournier J, Lacarrière B, Le Corre O. Pelletization of carbonized wood using organic binder with biomass gasification as additive. Energy Proc, 2019, 158: 509-515.

[58] IEA (2011) Global wood pellet industry market and trade study. IEA Bioenergy.

[59] Ifa L, . Techno-economic analysis of bio-briquette from cashew nut shell waste. Heliyon, 2020, 6: 1-9.

[60] Ikelle II, Chukwuma A, Ivoms SO. The characterization of the heating properties of briquettes of coal and rice husk. IOSR J Appl Chem, 2014, 7(5): 100-105.

[61] Ikubanni PP, Tobiloba O, Wallace O, Oluwatoba O, Akanni AA. Performance evaluation of briquette produced from a designed and fabricated piston-type briquetting machine. Int J Eng Res Technol, 2019, 12(8): 1227-1238.

[62] Ilochi N (2010) Comparative analysis of coal briquettes blends with groundnut shell and maize cob. Nnamdi Azikiwe Univ. Awka, Anambra State, Niger, pp. 210

[63] Jelonek Z, Drobniak A, Mastalerz M, Jelonek I. Environmental implications of the quality of charcoal briquettes and lump charcoal used for grilling. Sci Total Environ, 2020, 747: 1-25.

[64] Jiang L, . A comparative study of biomass pellet and biomass-sludge mixed pellet: energy input and pellet properties. Energy Convers Manag, 2016, 126: 509-515.

[65] John C, . Solid fuel from Co-briquetting of sugarcane bagasse and rice bran. Renew Energy, 2020, 147: 1941-1958.

[66] Juan FP, Gonz WA. Biofuel quality analysis of fallen leaf pellets: effect of moisture and glycerol contents as binders. Renew Energy, 2020, 147: 1139-1150.

[67] Junga R, Yilmaz E, Niemiec P. Combustion behavior and mechanical properties of pellets derived from blends of animal manure and lignocellulosic biomass. J Environ Manage, 2021, 290: 1-8.

[68] Kaliyan NV, Morey R. Factors affecting strength and durability of densified biomass products. Biomass Bioenerg, 2009, 33(3): 337-359.

[69] Kang K, Qiu L, Sun G, Zhu M, Yang X, Yao Y. Co-densification technology as a critical strategy for energy recovery from biomass and other resources—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2019, 116: 109414.

[70] Kang K, Nanda S, Shiung S, Zhang T, Huo L, Zhao L. Enhanced fuel characteristics and physical chemistry of microwave hydrochar for sustainable fuel pellet production via co-densification. Environ Res, 2020, 186: 1-10.

[71] Karunanithy C, Wang Y, Muthukumarappan K, Pugalendhi S. Physiochemical characterization of briquettes made from different feedstocks. Biotechnol Res Int, 2012, 2012(165202): 1-12.

[72] Kirsten C, Lenz V, Schröder H, Repke J. Hay pellets—the influence of particle size reduction on their physical–mechanical quality and energy demand during production. Fuel Process Technol, 2016, 148: 163-174.

[73] Klinge S, Mandø M, Brinch A. Review of die design and process parameters in the biomass pelleting process Feedstock Drying Cooling. Powder Technol, 2020, 364: 971-985.

[74] Kri P, Šoos Ľ, Beniak J. The effect of papermaking sludge as an additive to biomass pellets on the final quality of the fuel. Fuel, 2018, 219: 196-204.

[75] Kumar MV, Vithyasagar T, Rajavel R (2017) Analysis of biomass briquettes by using different agricultural wastes analysis of biomass briquettes by using different agricultural wastes. Proc Int Conf Technol Adv Mech Eng (ICTAME 2017), pp. 1–12

[76] Lestari L, Variani VI, Sudiana IN, Sari DP. “Characterization of briquette from the corncob charcoal and sago stem alloys. IOP Conf Ser J Phys Conf Ser, 2017, 846(012012): 1-7.

[77] Lu Z, . Application of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for direct and quick determination of fuel property of woody biomass pellets. Renew Energy, 2021, 164: 1204-1214.

[78] Lubwama M, Yiga VA. Development of groundnut shells and bagasse briquettes as sustainable fuel sources for domestic cooking applications in Uganda. Renew Energy, 2017, 111: 532-542.

[79] Lubwama M, Andrew V, Muhairwe F, Kihedu J. Physical and combustion properties of agricultural residue bio-char bio-composite briquettes as sustainable domestic energy sources. Renew Energy, 2020, 148: 1002-1016.

[80] Maia BGD, Souza O, Marangoni C, Hotza D, Oliveira APN, Sellin N. Production and characterization of fuel briquettes from banana leaves waste production and characterization of fuel briquettes from banana leaves waste. Chem Eng Trans, 2014, 37: 439-444.

[81] Manouchehrinejad M, Mani S. Torrefaction after pelletization (TAP): analysis of torrefied pellet quality and co-products. Biomass Bioenerg, 2018, 118: 93-104.

[82] Marsh R, Griffiths AJ, Williams KP, Wilcox SJ. Physical and thermal properties of extruded refuse derived fuel. Fuel Process Technol, 2007, 88(7): 701-706.

[83] Martín AJ, Pevida C, Rubiera F, García R, Gonz MP. Pelletization of torrefied biomass with solid and liquid bio-additives. Renew Energy, 2020, 151: 175-183.

[84] Matkowski P, Lisowski A, Swie A. Effect of compacted dose of pure straw and blends of straw with calcium carbonate or cassava starch on pelletising process and pellet quality. J Clean Prod, 2020, 277: 1-12.

[85] Matkowski P, Lisowski A, Swie A. Pelletising pure wheat straw and blends of straw with calcium carbonate or cassava starch at different moisture, temperature, and die height values: Modelling and optimisation. J Clean Prod, 2020, 272: 1-11.

[86] Meda V, Dumonceaux T (2018) Pretreatment of crop residues by application of microwave heating and alkaline solution for biofuel processing: a review. Renew Resour Biorefine Energy IntechOpen 48–67

[87] Merry N, . Performance of binders in briquetting of durian peel as a solid biofuel. Mater Today Proc, 2018, 5: 21753-21758.

[88] Mitchell EJS, . The use of agricultural residues, wood briquettes and logs for small-scale domestic heating. Fuel Process Technol, 2020, 210: 1-10.

[89] Mitchual SJ (2014) Densification of sawdust of tropical hardwoods and maize cobs at room temperature using low compacting pressure without a binder. Ph.D. Thesis, Dep. Wood Sci. Technol. Kwame Nkrumah Univ. Sci. Technol., pp. 1–264

[90] Mohammed TI, Olugbade TO. Characterization of briquettes from rice bran and palm kernel shell. Int J Mater Sci Innov, 2015, 3(2): 60-67.

[91] Mopoung S, Udeye V. Characterization and evaluation of charcoal briquettes using banana peel and banana bunch waste for household heating. Am J Eng Appl Sci, 2017, 10(2): 353-365.

[92] Mu M, Chilton AM, Cant Y. Assessing the viability of cyanobacteria pellets for application in arid land restoration. J Environ Manage, 2020, 270: 1-7.

[93] Muhammad SIN (2019) Comparative assessment of the economic and environmental impacts of food waste fermentation on value-added products. Grad. Theses Diss. Iowa State Univ. Capstones. pp. 1–151

[94] Nataša D, Branka N, Zoran C (2017) Comparison of ash melting behavior of crop residues and woody biofuels with recommended measures. In: 8th PSU-UNS Int. Conf. Eng. Technol. (ICET-2017), Novi Sad, Serbia, June 8–10, 2017 Univ. Novi Sad Fac Tech Sci vol. PS-1(16): 1–4

[95] Navalta JCLG, Banaag GK, Raboy VAO, Go AW, Cabatingan LK, Ju Y. Solid fuel from co-briquetting of sugarcane bagasse and rice bran. Renew Energy, 2020, 147: 1941-1958.

[96] Nicksy D, Pollard A, Strong D, Hendry J. In-situ torrefaction and spherical pelletization of partially pre-torrefied hybrid poplar. Biomass Bioenerg, 2014, 70: 452-460.

[97] Odusote JK, Muraina HO. Mechanical and combustion characteristics of oil palm biomass fuel briquette. J Eng Technol, 2017, 8(1): 14-29.

[98] Ojolo SJ, Orisaleye JI, Ismail SO (2012) Technical potential of biomass energy in Nigeria. June 2016

[99] Oladeji JT. Fuel characterization of briquettes produced from corncob and rice husk resides. Pacific J Sci Technol, 2010, 11(1): 101-106.

[100] Oladeji JT. Theoretical aspects of biomass briquetting: a review study. J Energy Technol Policy, 2015, 5(3): 72-82.

[101] Oladeji JT, Enweremadu CC. The effects of some processing parameters on physical and densification characteristics of corncob briquettes. Int J Energy Eng, 2012, 2(1): 22-27.

[102] Oladeji J, Balogun AO, Adetola SO. Characterization of briquettes produced from corn cobs and corn stalks. Comput Inf Syst Dev Informat Allied Res J, 2016, 7(2): 65-72.

[103] Olatunji OO, Akinlabi S, Madushele N, Adedeji PA, Ndolomingo MJ, Meshack T. Blended tropical almond residue for fuel production: characteristics, energy benefits, and emission reduction potential. J Clean Prod, 2020, 267: 1-20.

[104] Onukak IE, Mohammed-dabo IA, Ameh AO, Okoduwa SIR, Fasanya OO. Production and characterization of biomass briquettes from tannery solid waste. Recycling, 2017, 2(17): 1-19.

[105] Osei B, Takase M, Mantey J. Preparation of charcoal briquette from palm kernel shells: case study in Ghana. Heliyon, 2020, 6: 1-8.

[106] Oyedepo SO, . Bioenergy technology development in Nigeria—pathway to sustainable energy development. Int J Environ Sustain Dev, 2019, 18(2): 175-205.

[107] Oyelaran OA, Tudunwada YY. Determination of the bioenergy potential of melon shell and corn cob briquette. Iran J Energy Environ J, 2015, 6(3): 167-172.

[108] Oyelaran OA, Sanusi O. Enhancing the heating properties of agricultural waste briquettes. Leonardo Electron J Pract Technol, 2019, 32: 77-92.

[109] Paper C, Luttrell G (2012) Evaluation of methods used to quantify the durability of coal-biomass briquettes. In: Proc Int Pittsburgh Coal Conf Univ Pittsburgh, Swanson Sch Eng Oct 16–19, Pittsburgh, PA, CD, pp. 1–11

[110] Park S, . Investigation of agro-byproduct pellet properties and improvement in pellet quality through mixing. Energy, 2020, 190: 1-8.

[111] Pawlak-kruczek H, . Biocoal—quality control and assurance. Biomass Bioenerg, 2020, 135: 1-15.

[112] Peng J et al. (2015) Sawdust as an effective binder for making torrefied pellets. Appl Energy 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06

[113] Pimchuai A, Dutta A, Basu P. Torrefaction of agriculture residue to enhance combustible properties. Energy Fuel, 2010, 24: 4638-4645.

[114] Poyry (2009) Wood pellets: global market, players and trade to 2015. Mark Newsl

[115] Promdee K, . Characterization of carbon materials and differences from activated carbon particle (ACP) and coal briquettes product (CBP) derived from coconut shell via rotary kiln. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2017, 75: 1175-1186.

[116] Rabiu AB, Lasode OA, Popoola OT, Babatunde OP, Ajimotokan HA. Densification of tropical wood residues for the development of solid fuels. IAFOR Int Conf Sustain Energy Environ Hawaii, 2019, 2019: 1-11.

[117] Rafael B, . Production of Pleurotus ostreatus var. Florida on briquettes and recycling its spent substrate as briquettes for fuel grade biosolids. J Clean Prod, 2020, 274: 1-11.

[118] Raj T et al. Physical and chemical characterization of various Indian agriculture residues for biofuels production. Energy Fuels 1–28

[119] Rajput SP, Jadhav SV, Thorat BN. Methods to improve properties of fuel pellets obtained from different biomass sources: effect of biomass blends and binders. Fuel Process Technol, 2020, 199: 1-12.

[120] Ren S, Lei H, Wang L, Yadavall G, Liu T, Julson J. The integrated process of microwave torrefaction and pytolysis of corn sotver for biofuel production. J Ofr Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 2014, 108: 248-253.

[121] Renewables (2020) Transport biofuels. IEA, Paris, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2020/transport-biofuels

[122] Riva L, . Analysis of optimal temperature, pressure and binder quantity for the production of biocarbon pellet to be used as a substitute for coke. Appl Energy, 2019, 256: 1-16.

[123] Sakai H, Sheng N, Kurniawan A, Akiyama T, Nomura T. Fabrication of heat storage pellets composed of microencapsulated phase change material for high-temperature applications. Appl Energy, 2020, 265: 1-8.

[124] Scarlat N, Dallemand J, Fahl F. Biogas: developments and perspectives in Europe. Renew Energy, 2018, 129: 457-472.

[125] Sedlmayer I, . Determination of off-gassing and self-heating potential of wood pellets—method comparison and correlation analysis. Fuel, 2018, 234: 894-903.

[126] Setter C, Letícia K, Costa S, José T, De Oliveira P, Farinassi R. The effects of kraft lignin on the physicomechanical quality of briquettes produced with sugarcane bagasse and on the characteristics of the bio-oil obtained via slow pyrolysis. Fuel Process Technol, 2020, 210: 1-10.

[127] Sharma HB, Dubey BK. Binderless fuel pellets from hydrothermal carbonization of municipal yard waste: effect of severity factor on the hydrochar pellets properties. J Clean Prod, 2020, 277: 1-16.

[128] Sharma MK, Priyank G, Sharma N. Biomass briquette production: a propagation of non-convention technology and future of pollution free thermal energy sources. Am J Eng Res, 2015, 4(2): 44-50.

[129] Shigehisa T, Nakagawa T, Yamamoto S. Briquetting of UBC by double roll press part I: the application and limitations of the Johanson model. Powder Technol, 2014, 264: 608-613.

[130] Shui T, Khatri V, Chae M, Sokhansanj S, Choi P, Bressler DC. Development of a torrefied wood pellet binder from the cross-linking between specified risk materials-derived peptides and epoxidized poly (vinyl alcohol). Renew Energy, 2020, 162: 71-80.

[131] Shuma R, Madyira DM. Emissions comparison of loose biomass and cactus binders. Proc Manuf, 2019, 35: 130-136.

[132] Singh G, Kumar M, Vaish R. Promising multicatalytic and adsorption capabilities in V₂O₅/BiVO₄ composite pellets for water-cleaning application. Surfaces Interfaces, 2021, 23: 2-11.

[133] Solorzano LCH, Nuñez CAF, Sierra-Vargas FE. Biomass densification: a review of the current state-of-the-art of the pellet market and analysis of new research trends. Tecciencia, 2017, 12(23): 81-92.

[134] Song A, Zha F, Tang X, Chang Y. Effect of the additives on combustion characteristics and desulfurization performance of cow dung briquette. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif, 2019, 143: 1-8.

[135] Song B, Cooke-willis M, Theobald B, Hall P. Producing a high heating value and weather resistant solid fuel via briquetting of blended wood residues and thermoplastics. Fuel, 2021, 283: 1-10.

[136] Stelte W (2011) Fuel pellets from biomass: processing, bonding and raw materials. Ph.D. Thesis, Tech. Univ. Denmark. 90:1–53

[137] Stelte W, Holm JK, Sanadi AR, Barsberg S, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB. A study of bonding and failure mechanisms in fuel pellets from different biomass resources. Biomass Bioenerg, 2010, 35(2): 910-918.

[138] Suberu MY, Mokhtar AS, Bashir N. Potential capability of corn cob residue for small power generation in rural Nigeria. J Eng Appl Sci, 2012, 7(8): 1037-1046.

[139] Sugathapala AGT, Chandak SP (2013) Technologies for converting waste agricultural biomass to energy. Reading Mater United Nations Environ Program Div Technol Ind Econ Int Environ Technol Cent Osaka, pp. 1–229

[140] Supatata N, Buates J, Hariyanont P. Characterization of fuel briquettes made from sewage sludge mixed with water hyacinth and sewage sludge mixed with sedge. Int J Environ Sci Dev, 2017, 4(2): 3-6.

[141] Swiechowski K, Liszewski M, Babelewski P, Koziel JA, Białowiec A. Oxytree pruned biomass torrefaction: mathematical models of the influence of temperature and residence time on fuel properties improvement. Materials (basel), 2019, 12(2228): 1-26.

[142] Tembe ET, Otache PO, Ekhuemelo DO. Density, shatter index, and combustion properties of briquettes produced from groundnut shells, rice husks and saw dust of Daniellia oliveri. J Appl Biosci, 2014, 82: 7372-7378.

[143] Thapa S, Engelken R. “Optimization of pelleting parameters for producing composite pellets using agricultural and agro-processing wastes by Taguchi-Grey relational analysis. Carbon Resour Convers., 2020, 3: 104-111.

[144] Thulu FGD, Kachaje O, Mlowa T. A study of combustion characteristics of fuel briquettes from a blend of banana peelings and saw dust in Malawi. Int J Thesis Proj Diss, 2016, 4(3): 135-158.

[145] Thürer M, Stevenson TIM, Qu T, Huisingh D. A systematic review of the literature on integrating sustainability into engineering curricula. J Clean Prod, 2018, 181: 608-617.

[146] Tilay A, Azargohar R, Drisdelle M, Dalai A, Kozinski J. Canola meal moisture-resistant fuel pellets: study on the effects of process variables and additives on the pellet quality and compression characteristics. Ind Crop Prod, 2015, 63: 337-348.

[147] Trubetskaya A, . Characterization of woodstove briquettes from torrefied biomass and coal. Energy, 2019, 171: 853-865.

[148] Tuates AM, Ligisan AR, Capariño OA. Physico-chemical and thermal properties of fuel briquettes derived from biomass furnaces as by-products. J Japan Inst Energy, 2016, 95(9): 859-867.

[149] Tuates AM, Ligisan AR, Capariño OA. Physico-chemical and thermal properties of fuel briquettes derived from biomass furnaces as by-products. J Japan Inst Energ, 2016, 95(9): 859-867.

[150] Tumuluru CT, Wright KL, Kenny, JR Hess (2010) A review on biomass densification technologies for energy application. Idaho

[151] Tumuluru JS, Sokhansanj S, Hess JR, Wright CT, Boardman RD. A review on biomass torrefcation process and product properties for energy applications. Ind Biotechnol, 2011, 7(5): 384-401.

[152] Wamukonya L, Jenkins B. Wheat-straw briquettes as possible fuels for Kenya. Biomass Bioenerg, 1995, 8(3): 175-179.

[153] Wang Q, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Shrinkage kinetics of large-sized briquettes during pyrolysis and its application in tamped coal cakes from large-scale chambers. Fuel, 2014, 138: 1-14.

[154] Wang T, . Effect of molasses binder on the pelletization of food waste hydrochar for enhanced biofuel pellets production. Sustain Chem Pharm, 2019, 14: 1-8.

[155] Wang C, Zhang S, Wu S, Sun M, Lyu J. Multi-purpose production with valorization of wood vinegar and briquette fuels from wood sawdust by hydrothermal process. Fuel, 2020, 282: 1-9.

[156] Xia X, Zhang K, Xiao H, Xiao S, Song Z, Yang Z. Effects of additives and hydrothermal pretreatment on the pelleting process of rice straw: energy consumption and pellets quality. Ind Crop Prod, 2019, 133: 178-184.

[157] Yang I, Cooke-willis M, Song B, Hall P. Densification of torrefied Pinus radiata sawdust as a solid biofuel: effect of key variables on the durability and hydrophobicity of briquettes. Fuel Process Technol, 2021, 214: 1-9.

[158] Yank A, Ngadi M, Kok R. Biomass and bioenergy physical properties of rice husk and bran briquettes under low pressure densification for rural applications. Biomass Bioenerg, 2016, 84: 22-30.

[159] Young P, Khennas S (2003) Feasibility and impact assessment of a proposed project to briquette municipal solid waste for use as a cooking fuel in Rwanda. Intermed Technol Consult Consult Rep to Bus Linkages Chall. Fund. pp. 1–59.

[160] Yusuf S, Faiz M, Abd L, Muhaimin A. Evaluation of hybrid briquettes from corncob and oil palm trunk bark in a domestic cooking application for rural communities in Nigeria. J Clean Prod, 2021, 284: 1-10.

[161] Zhai Y, . Production of fuel pellets via hydrothermal carbonization of food waste using molasses as a binder. Waste Manag, 2018, 77: 185-194.

[162] Zhang Y, Ghaly AE, Li B. Physical properties of corn residues. Am J Biochem Biotechnol, 2012, 8(2): 44-53.

[163] Zhang G, Sun Y, Xu Y. Review of briquette binders and briquetting mechanism. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2018, 82: 477-487.

[164] Zubairu A, Gana SA. Production and characterization of briquette charcoal by carbonization of agro-waste. Energy Power, 2014, 4(2): 41-47.

[165] Zych (2008) The viability of corn cobs as a bioenergy feedstock. pp. 1–25