Lobster processing by-products as valuable bioresource of marine functional ingredients, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals

Abstract

The worldwide annual production of lobster was 165,367 tons valued over $3.32 billion in 2004, but this figure rose up to 304,000 tons in 2012. Over half the volume of the worldwide lobster production has been processed to meet the rising global demand in diversified lobster products. Lobster processing generates a large amount of by-products (heads, shells, livers, and eggs) which account for 50–70% of the starting material. Continued production of these lobster processing by-products (LPBs) without corresponding process development for efficient utilization has led to disposal issues associated with costs and pollutions. This review presents the promising opportunities to maximize the utilization of LPBs by economic recovery of their valuable components to produce high value-added products. More than 50,000 tons of LPBs are globally generated, which costs lobster processing companies upward of about $7.5 million/year for disposal. This not only presents financial and environmental burdens to the lobster processors but also wastes a valuable bioresource. LPBs are rich in a range of high-value compounds such as proteins, chitin, lipids, minerals, and pigments. Extracts recovered from LPBs have been demonstrated to possess several functionalities and bioactivities, which are useful for numerous applications in water treatment, agriculture, food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical products, and biomedicine. Although LPBs have been studied for recovery of valuable components, utilization of these materials for the large-scale production is still very limited. Extraction of lobster components using microwave, ultrasonic, and supercritical fluid extraction were found to be promising techniques that could be used for large-scale production. LPBs are rich in high-value compounds that are currently being underutilized. These compounds can be extracted for being used as functional ingredients, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals in a wide range of commercial applications. The efficient utilization of LPBs would not only generate significant economic benefits but also reduce the problems of waste management associated with the lobster industry. This comprehensive review highlights the availability of the global LPBs, the key components in LPBs and their current applications, the limitations to the extraction techniques used, and the suggested emerging techniques which may be promising on an industrial scale for the maximized utilization of LPBs.

Keywords

Lobster processing by-products / Marine functional ingredients and nutraceuticals / Chitin and chitosan / Astaxanthin / Lobster flavors / Lobster lipids / Lobster protein

References

[1] Ajavakom A, Supsvetson S, Somboot A, Sukwattanasinitt M. Products from microwave and ultrasonic wave assisted acid hydrolysis of chitin. Carbohydr Polym, 2012, 90(1): 73-77.

[2] Alabdulkarim B, Bakeet ZAN, Arzoo S. Role of some functional lipids in preventing diseases and promoting health. J King Saud Univ-Sci, 2012, 24(4): 319-329.

[3] Albalat A, Nadler LE, Foo N, Dick JR, Watts AJ, Philp H, Neil DM, Monroig O. Lipid composition of oil extracted from wasted Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) heads and comparison with oil extracted from Antarctic krill (Euphasia superba). Mar Drugs, 2016, 14(12): 219.

[4] Álvarez C, Tiwari BK (2015) Ultrasound assisted extraction of proteins from fish processing by-products. In: institute of food technologist. Chicago, US

[5] Annie T, McCarron P (2006) Lobster market overview. Maine Lobstermen’s Association

[6] Auerswald L, Gäde G. Simultaneous extraction of chitin and astaxanthin from waste of lobsters Jasus lalandii, and use of astaxanthin as an aquacultural feed additive. Afr J Mar Sci, 2008, 30(1): 35-44.

[7] Badawy MEI, Rabea EI. A biopolymer chitosan and its derivatives as promising antimicrobial agents against plant pathogens and their applications in crop protection. Int J Carbohydr Chem, 2011, 2011: 1-29.

[8] Bamgbose JT, Bamigbade AA, Adewuyi S, Dare EO, Lasisi AA, Njah AN. Equilibrium swelling and kinetic studies of highly swollen chitosan film. J Chem Chem Eng, 2012, 6(3): 272-283.

[9] Barker E, Rossbach M. Western rock lobster fishery—2013/2014 season. Commercial fisheries production bulletin, 2013, Government of western Australia: Department of fisheries, 1-8.

[10] Battison AL, Summerfield R, Patrzykat A. Isolation and characterisation of two antimicrobial peptides from haemocytes of the American lobster Homarus americanus. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2008, 25(1): 181-187.

[11] Bayer RC (2015) Lobster hemolymph as a utility for treatment of mammalian tissue lesions, Google Patents

[12] Borges AA, Borges-Pérez A, Gutiérrez A, Paz-Lago D, Cabrera G, Fernández M, Ramírez MA, Acosta A. Tomato-Fusarium oxysporum interactions: I-chitosan and MSB effectively inhibits fungal growth. Cultivos Trop, 2000, 21(4): 13-16.

[13] Cabrera JC, Van Cutsem P. Preparation of chitooligosaccharides with degree of polymerization higher than 6 by acid or enzymatic degradation of chitosan. Biochem Eng J, 2005, 25(2): 165-172.

[14] Cabrera J-C, Boland A, Cambier P, Frettinger P, Van Cutsem P. Chitosan oligosaccharides modulate the supramolecular conformation and the biological activity of oligogalacturonides in Arabidopsis. Glycobiology, 2010, 20(6): 775-786.

[15] Casariego A, Souza B, Cruz L, Díaz R, Teixeira J, Vicente A (2008) Chitosan coating and films: evaluation of surface, permeation, mechanical and thermal propertiess. Valnatura-A Europe-Latin América post-graduate research network in the valorization of natural resources, institute for biotechnology and bioengineering

[16] Casariego A, Souza B, Cerqueira M, Teixeira J, Cruz L, Díaz R, Vicente A. Chitosan/clay films ‘properties as affected by biopolymer and clay micro/nanoparticles’ concentrations. Food Hydrocoll, 2009, 23(7): 1895-1902.

[17] Cervera MF, Heinämäki J, de la Paz N, López O, Maunu SL, Virtanen T, Hatanpää T, Antikainen O, Nogueira A, Fundora J. Effects of spray drying on physicochemical properties of chitosan acid salts. AAPS Pharm Sci Tech, 2011, 12(2): 637-649.

[18] Charest DJ, Balaban MO, Marshall MA, Cornell JA. Astaxanthin extraction from crawfish shells by supercritical CO₂ with ethanol as cosolvent. J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 2001, 3: 81-96.

[19] Chemat F, Khan MK. Applications of ultrasound in food technology: processing, preservation and extraction. Ultrason Sonochem, 2011, 18(4): 813-835.

[20] Chen YC, Nguyen J, Semmens K, Meamer S, Jaczynski J. Physicochemical changes in omega-3-enhanced farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) muscle during refrigerated storage. Food Chem, 2007, 104(3): 1143-1152.

[21] Chen YC, Tou JC, Jaczynski J. Amino acid, fatty acid and mineral profiles of materials recovered from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) processing by-products using isoelectric solubilization/precipitation. J Food Sci, 2007, 74(2): C527-C535.

[22] Chen X, Yang H, Yan N. Shell biorefinery: dream or reality?. Chem-A Eur J, 2016, 22: 13402-13421.

[23] Chen X, Yang H, Zhong Z, Yan N. Base-catalysed, one-step mechanochemical conversion of chitin and shrimp shells into low molecular weight chitosan. Green Chem, 2017, 19(12): 2783-2792.

[24] Chew BP, Park JS. Carotenoid action on the immune response. J Nutr, 2004, 134(1): 257S-261S.

[25] Chew B, Park J, Chyun J, Mahoney M, Line L. Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutr Metab, 2010, 7(1): 18.

[26] Chobert JM, Briand L, Gueguen J, Popineau Y, Larre C, Haertle T. Recent advances in enzymatic modifications of food proteins for improving their functional properties. Nahr-Food, 1996, 40(4): 177-182.

[27] Choi YJ, Park JW. Acid-aided protein recovery from enzyme-rich Pacific whiting. J Food Sci, 2002, 67: 2962-2967.

[28] Comhaire F, Garem YE, Mahmoud A, Eertmans F, Schoonjans F. Combined conventional/antioxidant “Astaxanthin” treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian J Androl, 2005, 7(3): 257-262.

[29] Cousins JA (1997) Primary resource industry waste on Prince Edward Island. The PEI department of fishery and environment

[30] Da Silveira FF, De Souza KL, Nunes Filho A, de Lima Mendes JU, Ladchumananandasivan R (2013) Synthesis and characterization of chitosan used in the treatment of epithelial lesions. In: 22nd international congress of mechanical engineering. Brazil

[31] Daniel M. Evaluating by-products of the Atlantic shellfish industry as alternative feed ingredients for laying hens. Poult Sci, 2008, 91: 2189-2200.

[32] Dauphin L (1991) Enhancing value of lobster waste by enzymatic methods. In: food and agriculture chemistry, vol. Master, Mc Gill. Canada

[33] De La Hoz A, Diaz-Ortiz A, Moreno A. Microwaves in organic synthesis. Thermal and non-thermal microwave effects. Chem Soc Rev, 2005, 34(2): 164-178.

[34] De la Paz N, García C, Fernández M, García L, Martínez V, López OD, Nogueira A. Stability of spray-dried chitosan salts derived from lobster chitin as a raw material. Ars Pharm, 2015, 56(4): 217-224.

[35] Deepmala K, Hemantaranjan A, Bharti S, Nishant Bhanu A. A future perspective in crop protection: chitosan and its oligosaccharides. Adv Plantsand Agric Res, 2014, 1(1): 1-8.

[36] Defang Z, Gang Y, Pengyi Z, Zhiwei F. The modified process for preparing natural organic polymer flocculant chitosan. Chin J Environ Sci, 2001, 22(3): 123-125.

[37] Delgado Vargas F, Paredes-Lopez (2003) Carotenoids, CRC Press. LLC NW

[38] Denise S, Jason B (2012) Food grade astaxanthin from lobster shell discards. Maine agricultural center

[39] Di Mascio P, Murphy ME, Sies H. Antioxidant defense systems: the role of carotenoids, tocopherols, and thiols. Am J Clin Nutr, 1991, 53(1): 194S-200S.

[40] Donà G, Kožuh I, Brunati AM, Andrisani A, Ambrosini G, Bonanni G, Ragazzi E, Armanini D, Clari G, Bordin L. Effect of astaxanthin on human sperm capacitation. Mar Drugs, 2013, 11(6): 1909-1919.

[41] Earnest CP, Lupo M, White K, Church T. Effect of astaxanthin on cycling time trial performance. Int J Sports Med, 2011, 32(11): 882-888.

[42] El Hadrami A, Adam LR, El Hadrami I, Daayf F. Chitosan in plant protection. Mar Drugs, 2010, 8(4): 968-987.

[43] Falcón Rodríguez A, Rodríguez AT, Ramírez MA, Rivero D, Martínez B, Cabrera JC, Costales D, Cruz A, González LG, Jiménez MC. Chitosans as bioactive macromolecules to protect conomically relevant crops from their main pathogens. Biotecnol Apl, 2010, 27(4): 305-309.

[44] Falcón A, Ramírez M, Márquez R, Hernández M. Chitosan and its hydrolysate at tobacco-Phytophthora parasitica interaction. Cultivos Trop, 2002, 23(1): 61-66.

[45] Fassett RG, Coombes JS. Astaxanthin: a potential therapeutic agent in cardiovascular disease. Mar Drugs, 2011, 9(3): 447-465.

[46] Fassett RG, Coombes JS. Astaxanthin in cardiovascular health and disease. Molecules, 2012, 17(2): 2030-2048.

[47] FDA (2010) Listing of food additives status, vol 2014, FDA. EUA

[48] Felix-Valenzuela L, Higuera-Ciapara I, Goycoolea FM, Arguelles-Monal W. Supercritical CO₂/ethanol extraction of astaxanthin from blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) shell waste. J Food Eng, 2001, 24: 101-112.

[49] Filho GL, De Rosso VV, Meireles MAA, Rosa PTV, Oliveira AL, Mercadante AZ, Cabral FA. Supercritical CO₂ extraction of carotenoids from pitanga fruits (Eugenia uniflora L.). J Supercrit Fluids, 2008, 46: 33-39.

[50] Fredrick WS, Ravichandran S. Hemolymph proteins in marine crustaceans. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed, 2012, 2(6): 496-502.

[51] Froning GW, Wheling RL, Cuppett SL, Pierce MM, Niemann L, Seikman DK. Extraction of cholesterol and other lipids from dried egg yolk using supercritical carbon dioxide. J Food Sci, 1990, 55: 95-98.

[52] Gäde G, Auerswald L. The West Coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii as a valuable source for chitin and astaxanthin. Afr J Mar Sci, 2005, 27(1): 257-264.

[53] Garcıa MA, de la Paz N, Castro C, Rodrıguez JL, Rapado M, Zuluaga R, Ganán P, Casariego A. Effect of molecular weight reduction by gamma irradiation on the antioxidant capacity of chitosan from lobster shells. J Radiat Res Appl Sci, 2015, 8(2): 1-11.

[54] Gary M (2012) Southern rock lobster strategic plan 2011–2016. Southern Rock Lobster Ltd

[55] Ge H-C, Luo D-K. Preparation of carboxymethyl chitosan in aqueous solution under microwave irradiation. Carbohydr Res, 2005, 340(7): 1351-1356.

[56] Gehring CK, Gigliotti JC, Moritz JS, Tou JC, Jaczynski J. Functional and nutritional characteristics of proteins and lipids recovered by isoelectric processing of fish by-products and low value-fish: a review. Food Chem, 2011, 124: 422-431.

[57] Gigliotti JC, Jaczynski J, Tou JC. Determination of nutritional value, protein quality and safety of krill protein concentrate isolated using an isoelectric solubilization/precipitation technique. Food Chem, 2008, 111(1): 209-214.

[58] Giyose N, Mazomba N, Mabinya L. Evaluation of proteases produced by Erwinia chrysanthemi for the deproteinization of crustacean waste in a chitin production process. Afr J Biotech, 2010, 9(5): 707-710.

[59] Gross GJ, Lockwood SF. Acute and chronic administration of disodium disuccinate astaxanthin (CardaxTM) produces marked cardioprotection in dog hearts. Mol Cell Biochem, 2005, 272(1–2): 221-227.

[60] Guerin M, Huntley ME, Olaizola M. Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition. Trends Biotechnol, 2003, 21(5): 210-216.

[61] Gunstone FD. Modifying lipids for use in food, 2006, 1, Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing

[62] Gustavo C, Galo CT, Alexei TVE. Retention capacity of chitosan for copper and mercury ions. J Chil Chem Soc, 2005, 48(1): 1-11.

[63] Hamed I, Özogul F, Regenstein JM. Industrial applications of crustacean by-products (chitin,chitosan, and chitooligosaccharides): a review. J Chil Chem Soc, 2016, 48(1): 1-11.

[64] Hardardottir I, Kinsella JE. Extraction of lipids and cholesterol from fish muscle with supercritical fluid. J Food Sci, 1988, 53: 1656-1661.

[65] Hareyan A. Chitin from lobster shell shows great healing, bio-stimulant properties, 2007, Cuba: Universidad de Granada.

[66] Harikrishnan R, Kim J-S, Balasundaram C, Heo M-S. Dietary supplementation with chitin and chitosan on haematology and innate immune response in Epinephelus bruneus against Philasterides dicentrarchi. Exp Parasitol, 2012, 131(1): 116-124.

[67] He S, Nguyen T, Zhang W, Peng S. Protein hydrolysates produced from Rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) head: emulsifying capacity and food safety. Food Sci Nutr, 2016, 4(6): 869-877.

[68] Hipulan JRAM (2005) Chitosan from waste shrimp and lobster shells as plant growth regulator. In: intel Philippines science fair. Cagayan De Oro City

[69] Holmyard N, Franz N (2006) Lobster markets. FAO

[70] Huacai G, Wan P, Dengke L. Graft copolymerization of chitosan with acrylic acid under microwave irradiation and its water absorbency. Carbohydr Polym, 2006, 66(3): 372-378.

[71] Hudson R, Glaisher S, Bishop A, Katz JL. From lobster shells to plastic objects: a bioplastics activity. J Chem Educ, 2015, 92(11): 1882-1885.

[72] Hughes BH, Brian Perkins L, Calder BL, Skonberg DI. Fish oil fortification of soft goat cheese. J Food Sci, 2012, 77(2): S128-S133.

[73] Hussein G, Nakamura M, Zhao Q, Iguchi T, Goto H, Sankawa U, Watanabe H. Antihypertensive and neuroprotective effects of astaxanthin in experimental animals. Biol Pharm Bull, 2005, 28(1): 47-52.

[74] Hussein G, Goto H, Oda S, Sankawa U, Matsumoto K, Watanabe H. Antihypertensive potential and mechanism of action of astaxanthin: III. Antioxidant and histopathological effects in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Biol Pharm Bull, 2006, 29(4): 684-688.

[75] Iglesias R, Gutierrez A, Fernandez F. The influence of chitin from lobster exoskeleton seedling growth and mycorrhizal infection in tomato crop (Lycopersion esculentum mill). Cultivos Trop, 1994, 15(2): 48-49.

[76] Ilangumaran G (2014) Microbial degradation of lobster shells to extract chitin derivatives for plant disease management, vol. Master of Science, Dalhousie. Halifax, Nova Scotia

[77] Iwamoto T, Hosoda K, Hirano R, Kurata H, Matsumoto A, Miki W, Kamiyama M, Itakura H, Yamamoto S, Kondo K. Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by astaxanthin. J Atheroscler Thromb, 2000, 7(4): 216-222.

[78] Jeon YJ, Kim SK. Production of chitooligosaccharides using an ultrafiltration membrane reactor and their antibacteria activity. Carbohydr Polym, 2000, 41: 133-141.

[79] Jeyakumari A, Janarthanan G, Chouksey M, Venkateshwarlu G. Effect of fish oil encapsulates incorporation on the physico-chemical and sensory properties of cookies. J Food Sci Technol, 2016, 53(1): 856-863.

[80] Juang RS, Tseng RL, Wu FC, Lin SJ. Use of chitin and chitosan in lobster shell wastes for color removal from aqueous solutions. J Environ Sci Health, Part A, 1996, 31(2): 325-338.

[81] Juang RS, Tseng RL, Wu FC, Lee SH. Adsorption behavior of reactive dyes from aqueous solutions on chitosan. J Chem Technol Biotechnol, 1997, 70(4): 391-399.

[82] Jung W, Jo G, Kuk J, Kim Y, Oh K, Park R. Production of chitin from red crab shell waste by successive fermentation with Lactobacillus paracasei KCTC-3074 and Serratia marcescens FS-3. Carbohydr Polym, 2007, 68(4): 746-750.

[83] Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Tomita Y, Gross MD. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid without vitamin A activity, augments antibody response in cultures including T-helper cell clones and suboptimal doses of antigen. J Nutr, 1995, 125(10): 2483-2492.

[84] Kajita M, Tsukahara H, Kato M. The effects of a dietary supplement containing astaxanthin on the accommodation function of the eye in middle-aged and older people. Med Consult New Rem, 2009, 46: 89-93.

[85] Kamaguchi K, Murakami M, Nakano H, Konosu S, Kokura T, Yamamoto H, Kosaka M, Hata K. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of oils from Antartic krill. J Agric Food Chem, 1986, 34: 904-907.

[86] Kanazashi M, Okumura Y, Al-Nassan S, Murakami S, Kondo H, Nagatomo F, Fujita N, Ishihara A, Roy R, Fujino H. Protective effects of astaxanthin on capillary regression in atrophied soleus muscle of rats. Acta Physiol, 2013, 207(2): 405-415.

[87] Karagozlu MZ, Kim S-K. Kim S-K. Anti-cancer effects of chitin and chitosan derivatives. Handbook of anticancer drugs from marine origin, 2015, Heidelberg: Springer, 413-421.

[88] Kaur S, Dhillon GS. Recent trends in biological extraction of chitin from marine shell wastes: a review. Crit Rev Biotechnol, 2013, 35(1): 1-18.

[89] Kidd P. Astaxanthin, cell membrane nutrient with diverse clinical benefits and anti-aging potential. Altern Med Rev, 2011, 16(4): 355-364.

[90] Kim YS, Park JW, Choi YJ. New approaches for the effective recovery of fish proteins and their physicochemical characteristics. Fish Sci, 2003, 69(6): 1231-1239.

[91] Kindlund P, BioReal A. AstaREAL^®, natural astaxanthin–nature’s way to fight the metabolic syndrome. Wellness Foods, 2011, 1: 8-13.

[92] Kishimoto Y, Yoshida H, Kondo K. Potential anti-atherosclerotic properties of astaxanthin. Mar Drugs, 2016, 14(2): 1-13.

[93] Kjartansson GT, Zivanovic S, Kristbergsson K, Weiss J. Sonication-assisted extraction of chitin from shells of fresh water prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). J Agric Food Chem, 2006, 54: 3317-3323.

[94] Knuckey I (2004) Utilisation of seafood processing waste—challenges and opportunites. In: Australian New Zealand soils conference. University of Sydney, Australia

[95] Köhler A, Sarkkinen E, Tapola N, Niskanen T, Bruheim I. Bioavailability of fatty acids from krill oil, krill meal and fish oil in healthy subjects–a randomized, single-dose, cross-over trial. Lipids Health Dis, 2015, 14(19): 1-10.

[96] Kolanowski W, Berger S. Possibilities of fish oil application for food products enrichment with omega-3 PUFA. Int J Food Sci Nutr, 1999, 50(1): 39-49.

[97] Kolanowski W, Weißbrodt J. Sensory quality of dairy products fortified with fish oil. Int Dairy J, 2007, 17(10): 1248-1253.

[98] Kozo F (1997) Extraction of astaxanthin from shell of lobster or shrimp or crab and apparatus therefore. In: Patent J (ed) Japanese patent, vol JP A9301950. Japan

[99] Kristinsson HG, Hultin HO. Changes in conformation and subunit assembly of cod myosin at low and high pH after subsequent refolding. J Agric Food Chem, 2003, 51(24): 7187-7196.

[100] Kristinsson HG, Rasco BA. Fish protein hydrolysates: production, biochemical and functional properties. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2000, 40: 43-81.

[101] Kuhn R, Soerensen N. The coloring matters of the lobster (Astacus gammarus L.). Z Angew Chem, 1938, 51: 465-466.

[102] Kumar MNR. A review of chitin and chitosan applications. React Funct Polym, 2000, 46(1): 1-27.

[103] Kurita K. Chitin and chitosan: functional biopolymers from marine crustaceans. Mar Biotechnol, 2006, 8(3): 203-226.

[104] Lagarto A, Merino N, Valdes O, Dominguez J, Spencer E, de la Paz N, Aparicio G. Safety evaluation of chitosan and chitosan acid salts from Panurilus argus lobster. Int J Biol Macromol, 2015, 72: 1343-1350.

[105] Lebovka N, Vorobiev E, Chemat F. Enhancing extraction processes in the food industry, 2011, Boca Raton: CRC Press

[106] Lee JE, Peniston Q. Roy EM. Utilization of shellfish waste for chitin and chitosan production. Chemistry and biochemistry of marine food products, 1982, Cambridge: Academic Press, 1-5.

[107] Lee GH, Suriyaphan O, Cadwallader KR. Aroma components of cooked tail meat of American lobster (Homarus americanus). J Agricand Food Chem, 2001, 49(9): 4324-4332.

[108] Letisse M, Rozieres M, Hiol A, Sergent M, Comeau L. Enrichment of EPA and DHA from sardine by supercritical fluid extraction without organic modifier: I. Optimization of extraction conditions. J Supercrit Fluids, 2006, 38(1): 27-36.

[109] Li K, Xing R, Liu S, Qin Y, Meng X, Li P. Microwave-assisted degradation of chitosan for a possible use in inhibiting crop pathogenic fungi. Int J Biol Macromol, 2012, 51(5): 767-773.

[110] Lien LJ (2004) Development of value added foods from low value lobster portions. In: school of agriculture and wine, vol. The bachelor of food technology and management, The University of Adelaide. Adelaide

[111] Liu L, Li Y, Li Y, Fang Y-E. Rapid N-phthaloylation of chitosan by microwave irradiation. Carbohydr Polym, 2004, 57(1): 97-100.

[112] Lopez M, Arce L, Garrido J, Rios A, Valcarcel M. Selective extraction of astaxanthin from crustaceans by use of supercritical carbon dioxide. Talanta, 2004, 64: 726-731.

[113] López-Cervantes J, Sánchez-Machado DI, Rosas-Rodríguez JA. Analysis of free amino acids in fermented shrimp waste by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A, 2006, 1105: 106-110.

[114] Lordan S, Ross RP, Stanton C. Marine bioactives as functional food ingredients: potential to reduce the incidence of chronic diseases. Mar Drugs, 2011, 9(6): 1056-1100.

[115] Lu Y, Shang Y, Huang X, Chen A, Yang Z, Jiang Y, Cai J, Gu W, Qian X, Yang H. Preparation of strong cationic chitosan-graft-polyacrylamide flocculants and their flocculating properties. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2011, 50(12): 7141-7149.

[116] Maher T (2000) Astaxanthin. Continuing education module 1:1–5

[117] Majid I, Nayik GA, Nanda V. Ultrasonication and food technology: a review. Cogent Food Agric, 2015, 1(1): 1071022.

[118] Malho J-M, Heinonen H, Kontro I, Mushi NE, Serimaa R, Hentze H-P, Linder MB, Szilvay GR. Formation of ceramophilic chitin and biohybrid materials enabled by a genetically engineered bifunctional protein. Chem Commun, 2014, 50(55): 7348-7351.

[119] Malmstena CL, Lignellb Å. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin-rich algal meal improves strength endurance–A double blind placebo controlled study on male students. J Carotenoid Sci, 2008, 13: 20-22.

[120] Manni L, Ghorbel-Bellaaj O, Jellouli K, Younes I, Nasri M. Extraction and characterization of chitin, chitosan, and protein hydrolysates prepared from shrimp waste by treatment with crude protease from Bacillus cereus SV1. Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 2010, 162(2): 345-357.

[121] Marmon SK, Liljelind P, Undeland I. Removal of lipids, dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyls during production of protein isolates from Baltic herring (Clupea harengus) using pH-shift process. J Agric Food Chem, 2009, 57: 7819-7825.

[122] Mendes RL, Fernandes HI, Coelho JP, Reis EC, Cabral JM, Novais JM, Palavra AF. Supercritical CO₂ extraction of carotenoids and other lipids from Chlorella vulgaris. Food Chem, 1995, 53: 99-103.

[123] Mercadante AZ. Socaciu C, Presss CRC. Analysis of carotenoids. Food colorants: chemical and functionality, 2008, USA: Taylor & Francis. LLC, 447-472.

[124] Meyers SP, Bligh D. Characterization of astaxanthin pigment from heat processed crawfish waste. J Agric Food Chem, 1981, 9: 509-512.

[125] Meyers SP, Machada ZL (1978) Recovery of food-grade “waste” meat from the Spiny lobster Panulirus Argus. In: third annual tropical and subtropical fisheries technology conference of the America, Texas A&M university. Texas, America

[126] Miki W. Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids. Pure Appl Chem, 1991, 63(1): 141-146.

[127] Mina F, Mohammad C, Hamid V. The anitoxidant effects of astaxanthin on quantitative and qualitative parameters of bull sperm. Indian J Fundam Appl Life Sci, 2014, 4(4): 425-430.

[128] Mir VG, Heinämäki J, Antikainen O, Revoredo OB, Colarte AI, Nieto OM, Yliruusi J. Direct compression properties of chitin and chitosan. Eur J Pharm Biopharm, 2008, 69(3): 964-968.

[129] Mir VG, Heinämäki J, Antikainen O, Sandler N, Revoredo OB, Colarte AI, Nieto OM, Yliruusi J. Application of crustacean chitin as a co-diluent in direct compression of tablets. Am Assoc Pharm Sci, 2010, 11(1): 409-415.

[130] Mireles Dewitt CA, Gomez G, James JM. Protein extraction from beef heart using acid solubilization. J Food Sci, 2002, 67: 3335-3341.

[131] Miyawaki H, Takahashi J, Tsukahara H, Takehara I. Effects of astaxanthin on human blood rheology. J Clin Biochem Nutr, 2008, 43(2): 69-74.

[132] Muzzarelli RAA. Skjak-Braek G, Anthonsen T, Sandford P. Amphoteric derivatives of chitosan and their biological significances. Chitin and chitosan, 1989, New York: Elsevier Applied Science, 87-99.

[133] Nagaki Y, Mihara M, Tsukahara H, Ono S. The supplementation effect of astaxanthin on accommodation and asthenopia. J Clin Ther Med, 2006, 22(1): 41-54.

[134] Naito Y, Uchiyama K, Aoi W, Hasegawa G, Nakamura N, Yoshida N, Maoka T, Takahashi J, Yoshikawa T. Prevention of diabetic nephropathy by treatment with astaxanthin in diabetic db/db mice. BioFactors, 2004, 20(1): 49-59.

[135] Nguyen TT (2017) Biorefinery process development for recovery of functional and bioactive compounds from lobster processing by-products for food and nutraceutical applications. In: medical biotechnology, vol. Doctor, Flinders

[136] Nguyen TT, Zhang W, Barber AR, Su P, He S. Significant enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the lipids extracted by supercritical CO₂ from the livers of Australian rock lobsters (Jasus edwardsii). J Agric Food Chem, 2015, 63(18): 4621-4628.

[137] Nguyen TT, Zhang W, Barber AR, Su P, He S. Microwave-intensified enzymatic deproteinization of Australian rock lobster shells (Jasus edwardsii) for the efficient recovery of protein hydrolysate as food functional nutrients. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2016, 9(4): 628-636.

[138] Nguyen TT, Barber AR, Luo X, Zhang W. Application and optimization of the highly efficient and environmentally-friendly microwave-intensified lactic acid demineralization of deproteinized Rock lobster shells (Jasusedwardsii) for chitin production. Food Bioprod Process, 2017, 102: 367-374.

[139] Ni Y, Nagashimada M, Zhuge F, Zhan L, Nagata N, Tsutsui A, Nakanuma Y, Kaneko S, Ota T. Astaxanthin prevents and reverses diet-induced insulin resistance and steatohepatitis in mice: a comparison with vitamin E. Sci Rep, 2015, 5: 1-15.

[140] Nir Y, Spiller G. BioAstin helps relieve pain and improves performance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Am Coll Nutr, 2002, 21(5): 1-6.

[141] Nolsoe H, Undeland I. The acid and alkaline solubilization process for the isolation of muscle proteins: state of art. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2009, 2: 1-27.

[142] Oh K-T, Kim Y-J, Jung W-J, Park R-D. Demineralization of crab shell waste by Pseudomonas aeruginosa F722. Process Biochem, 2007, 42(7): 1069-1074.

[143] Osinga R, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (1999) Stability and stabilization of biocatalysts

[144] Oviedo D, Garcia I, Mendez A, Henriques R. Functional and nutritional evaluation of lobster shell soluble proteins. Food/Nahrung, 1982, 26(4): 391-395.

[145] Parajó JC, Dominguez H, Moure A, Diaz-Reinoso B. Meireles AAA. Obtaining antioxidants by supercritical fluid extraction applied. Extracting bioactive compounds for food products: theory and applications, 2008, USA: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

[146] Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK, Line LL, Chew BP. Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutr Metab, 2010, 7(18): 1-10.

[147] Pathak A (2017) Chitin and chitosan; technology, applications and global market BCC research

[148] Pathiraja IK (2014) Removal of acid yellow 25 dye onto chitin extracted from waste crab legs and study of adsorption isotherms and kinetics of AY25 dye adsorption. In: Chemistry, vol. Master, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville

[149] Peniche-Covas C, Alvarez L, Argüelles-Monal W. The adsorption of mercuric ions by chitosan. J Appl Polym Sci, 1992, 46(7): 1147-1150.

[150] Percot A, Viton C, Domard A. Optimization of chitin extraction from shrimp shells. Biomacromol, 2003, 4(1): 12-18.

[151] Peters RD, Sturz AV, MacLeod JA (2006) The benefits of using lobster processing waste as a soil amendment in organic potato production. In: guelph organic conference, natural sciences symposium Canada

[152] Petit C, Reynaud S, Desbrieres J. Amphiphilic derivatives of chitosan using microwave irradiation. Toward an eco-friendly process to chitosan derivatives. Carbohydr Polym, 2015, 116: 26-33.

[153] Pisuttharachai D, Fagutao FF, Yasuike M, Aono H, Yano Y, Murakami K, Kondo H, Aoki T, Hirono I. Characterization of crustin antimicrobial proteins from Japanese spiny lobster Panulirus japonicus. Dev Comp Immunol, 2009, 33(10): 1049-1054.

[154] Pombo R (1995) Antifungal activity of lobster chitosan on growth of two phythogenic fungi. Congress of cell wall, Santiago De Compostela, Spain

[155] Qi Z (2015) Biomimetic functional materials based on cellulose and chitin nanofibers. 2nd international conference on natural fibers, Portugeese

[156] Rao AR, Sarada R, Ravishankar GA. Stabilization of astaxanthin in edible oils and its use as an antioxidant. J Sci Food Agric, 2007, 87(6): 957-965.

[157] Reverchon E, De Marco I. Supercritical fluid extraction and fractionation of natural matter. J Supercrit Fluids, 2006, 38: 146-166.

[158] Rinaudo M. Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog Polym Sci, 2006, 31(7): 603-632.

[159] Rizliya V, Mendis E. Kim SK. Biological, physical, and chemical properties of fish oil and industrial applications. Seafood processing by-products, 2014, Hiedelberg: Springer, 285-313.

[160] Ross RF (1927) The preparation of lobster paste. The ministry of Canadian marine and fisheries

[161] Roy I, Mondal K, Gupta MN. Accelerating enzymatic hydrolysis of chitin by microwave pretreatment. Biotechnol Prog, 2003, 19(6): 1648-1653.

[162] Rubio-Rodríguez N, De-Diego-Rupérez S, Beltrán S, Jaime I, Sanz MT, Rovira J. Supercritical fluid extraction of the omega-3 rich oil contain in hake (Merluccius capensis–Merluccius paradoxus) by-products: study of influence of process parameters on the extraction yield and oil quality. J Supercrit Fluids, 2008, 47: 215-226.

[163] Rubio-Rodríguez N, Diego SMD, Beltrán S, Jaime I, Sanz MT, Rovira J. Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from fish by-products: a comparison with other extraction methods. J Food Eng, 2012, 109: 238-248.

[164] Sachindra N, Bhaskar N, Siddegowda G, Sathisha A, Suresh P. Recovery of carotenoids from ensilaged shrimp waste. Biores Technol, 2007, 98(8): 1642-1646.

[165] Safitri AU, Fajriah A, Astriandari A, Kartika I (2014) Bio mouth spray anti halitosis (bau mulut) berbasis fine particle chitosan lobster “segar sepanjang hari”. Institute of Pertanian Bogor, Indonesia

[166] Sahena F, Zaidul ISM, Jinap S, Saari N, Jahurul HA, Abbas KA, Norulaini NA. PUFAs in fish: extraction, fractionation, importance in health. Compr Rev Food Sce Food Saf, 2009, 8: 59-74.

[167] Sahu A, Goswami P, Bora U. Microwave mediated rapid synthesis of chitosan. J Mater Sci Mater Med, 2009, 20(1): 171-175.

[168] Saleem R, Hasnain A-U, Ahmad R. Solubilisation of muscle proteins from chicken breast muscle by ultrasonic radiations in physiological ionic medium. Cogent Food Agric, 2015, 1(1): 1-11.

[169] Sandford PA (1989) Chitosan: commercial use and potential applications Elsevier Applied Science, London/New York

[170] Savini I, Catani MV, Evangelista D, Gasperi V, Avigliano L. Obesity-associated oxidative stress: strategies finalized to improve redox state. Int J Mol Sci, 2013, 14(5): 10497-10538.

[171] Sayari N, Sila A, Abdelmalek BE, Abdallah RB, Ellouz-Chaabouni S, Bougatef A, Balti R. Chitin and chitosan from the Norway lobster by-products: antimicrobial and anti-proliferative activities. Int J Biol Macromol, 2016, 87: 163-171.

[172] Seki T, Sueki H, Kono H, Kaoru S, Eiji Y. Effects of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis on human skin. Fr J, 2001, 12: 98-103.

[173] Serrano GA, Narducci M. Natural astaxanthin, antioxidant protection power for healthy eyes. Agro Food Ind High Technol, 2014, 25: 11-14.

[174] Seya Y, Takahashi J, Imanaka K. Relationship between visual and reaction times—effects of a repetition of a visual task and long-term intake of a supplement food including astaxanthin on reaction time-Japanese. J Physiol Anthropol, 2009, 14: 17-24.

[175] Shahidi F (2006) Marine oils: compositional characteristics and health effects. In: nutraceutical and specialty lipids and their co-products, CRC Press

[176] Shahidi F, Synowiecki J. Isolation and characterization of nutrients and value-added products from snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) and shrimp (Pandalus borealis) processing discards. J Agric Food Chem, 1991, 39(8): 1527-1532.

[177] Sharp RG. A review of the applications of chitin and its derivatives in agriculture to modify plant-microbial interactions and improve crop yields. Agronomy, 2013, 3(4): 757-793.

[178] Shen M, Chen K, Lu J, Cheng P, Xu L, Dai W, Wang F, He L, Zhang Y, Chengfen W. Protective effect of astaxanthin on liver fibrosis through modulation of TGF-1 expression and autophagy. Mediat Inflamm, 2014, 2014: 1-15.

[179] Silva GF, Gamarra FMC, Oliveira AL, Cabral FA. Extraction of bisin from annatto seeds using supercritical carbon dioxide. Braz J Chem Eng, 2008, 25: 419-426.

[180] Simpson BK, Dauphin L, Smith JP. Recovery and characteristics of carotenoprotein from lobster (Homarus americanus) waste. J Aquat Food Prod Technol, 1993, 1(2): 129-146.

[181] Sindhu S, Sherief P. Extraction, characterization, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of carotenoids from the shell waste of Arabian red shrimp Aristeus alcocki. Open Conf Proc J., 2011, 2: 95-103.

[182] Sini TK, Santhosh S, Mathew PT. Study on the production of chitin and chitosan from shrimp shell by using Bacillus subtilis fermentation. Carbohydr Res, 2007, 342(16): 2423-2429.

[183] Sorokulova I, Krumnow A, Globa L, Vodyanoy V. Efficient decomposition of shrimp shell waste using Bacillus cereus and Exiguobacterium acetylicum. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol, 2009, 36(8): 1123-1126.

[184] Sunda F, Zhang Q, Zhang H, Zhang C, Qishan L (2012) Extraction method of astaxanthin from lobster heads, Google Patents

[185] Swanson D, Block R, Mousa SA. Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: health benefits throughout life. Adv Nutr Int Rev J, 2012, 3(1): 1-7.

[186] Synowiecki J, Al-Khateeb N. Mycelia of Mucor rouxii as a source of chitin and chitosan. Food Chem, 1997, 60: 605-610.

[187] Synowiecki J, Al-Khateeb NA. Production, properties, and some new applications of chitin and its derivatives. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2003, 43: 145-171.

[188] Tahergorabi R, Beamer S, Matak KE, Jaczynski J. Effect of isoelectric solubilization/precipiation and titanium dioxide on whitening and texture of proteins recovered from dark chicken-meat processing by-products. Food Sci Technol, 2011, 44(4): 896-903.

[189] Tahergorabi R, Sivanandan L, Jaczynski J. Dynamic rheology and endothermic transitions of proteins recovered from chicken-meat processing by-products using isolectric solubilization/preicpitation. Food Sci Technol, 2012, 46(1): 148-155.

[190] Tanaka Y, Ohkubo T. Extraction of lipids from salmon roes with supercritical carbon dioxide. J Oleo Sci, 2003, 52: 295-301.

[191] Taskaya L, Chen YC, Beamer S, Tou JC, Jaczynski J. Composition characteristics of materials recovered from whole gutted silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) using isoelectric solubilization/precipitation. J Agric Food Chem, 2009, 57(10): 4259-4266.

[192] Taskaya L, Chen YC, Jaczynski J. Functional properties of proteins recovered from whole gutted silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) by isoelectric solubilization/precipitation. Food Sci Technol, 2009, 42(6): 1082-1089.

[193] Teo CC, Chong WPK, Ho YS. Development and application of microwave-assisted extraction technique in biological sample preparation from small molecule analysis. Metabolomics, 2013, 9: 1109-1128.

[194] Tetens I. Safety of ‘lipid extract from Euphausia superba’ as a novel food ingredient. Eur Food Saf Auth, 2009, 938: 1-17.

[195] Thériault G, Hanlon J, Creed L (2013) Report of the maritime lobster panel. Report to minister of agriculture, aquaculture and fisheries (New Brunswick), Minister of fisheries and aquaculture (Nova Scotia), and minister of fisheries, aquaculture and rural development (Prince Edward Island), Canada

[196] Tominaga K, Hongo N, Karato M, Yamashita E. Cosmetic benefits of astaxanthin on humans subjects. Acta Biochim Pol, 2012, 59(1): 43.

[197] Tong-Xun L, Mou-Ming Z. Thermal pretreatment and chemical modifications as a mean to alter hydrolytic characteristics and prevent bitterness in hydrolysates of fishery by-catch (Decapterus maruadsi) protein. Int J Food Sci Technol, 2010, 45: 1852-1861.

[198] Torrissen O, Tidemann E, Hansen F, Raa J. Ensiling in acid—a method to stabilize astaxanthin in shrimp processing by-products and improve uptake of this pigment by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Aquaculture, 1981, 26(1–2): 77-83.

[199] Tsvetnenko E, Kailis S, Evans L, Longmore R. Fatty acid composition of lipids from the contents of rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) cephalothorax. J Am Oil Chem Soc, 1996, 73(2): 259-261.

[200] Tu Y (1991) Recovery, drying and characterization of carotenoproteins from industrial lobster waste. In: food science and agriculture chemistry, vol. Master of Science, McGill University

[201] Tu Y, Simpson BK, Ramaswamy H, Yaylayan V, Smith JP, Hudon C. Carotenoproteins from lobster waste as a potential feed supplement for cultured salmonids. Food Biotechnol, 1991, 5(2): 87-93.

[202] Tu Z-C, Huang T, Wang H, Sha X-M, Shi Y, Huang X-Q, Man Z-Z, Li D-J. Physico-chemical properties of gelatin from bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) scales by ultrasound-assisted extraction. J Food Sci Technol, 2015, 52(4): 2166-2174.

[203] Uchiyama K, Naito Y, Hasegawa G, Nakamura N, Takahashi J, Yoshikawa T. Astaxanthin protects β-cells against glucose toxicity in diabetic db/db mice. Redox Rep, 2002, 7(5): 290-293.

[204] Undeland I, Kelleher SD, Hultin HO. Recovery of functional proteins from herring light muscle by an acid or alkaline solubilization process. J Agric Food Chem, 2002, 50: 7371-7379.

[205] Valdez-Pena AU, Espinoza-Perez JD, Sandoval-Fabian GC, Balagurusamy N, Hernandez-Rivera A, De-la-Garza-Rodriguez IM, Contreras-Esquivel JC. Screening of industrial enzymes for deproteinisation of shrimp head for chitin recovery. Food Science Biotechnol, 2010, 19(2): 553-557.

[206] Vardanega R, Santos DT, Meireles MAA. Intensification of bioactive compounds extraction from medicinal plants using ultrasonic irradiation. Pharmacogn Rev, 2014, 8(16): 88.

[207] Venugopal V. Mazza G. Functional and bioactive nutraceutical compounds from the ocean. Marine products for healthcare, 2009, Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.

[208] Venugopal V, Shahidi F. Value-added products from underutilized fish species. Rev Food Sci Nutr, 1995, 35(5): 431-453.

[209] Vieira GH, Martin AM, Saker-Sampaiao S, Omar S, Goncalves RC. Studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of Brazilian lobster (Panulirus spp) processing wastes. J Sci Food Agric, 1995, 69(1): 61-65.

[210] Vilkhu K, Mawson R, Simons L, Bates D. Applications and opportunities for ultrasound assisted extraction in the food industry—A review. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol, 2008, 9(2): 161-169.

[211] Wang S-L, Chio S-H. Deproteinization of shrimp and crab shell with the protease of Pseudomonas aeruginosa K-187. Enzyme Microb Technol, 1998, 22(7): 629-633.

[212] Wasikiewicz JM, Yeates SG. “Green” molecular weight degradation of chitosan using microwave irradiation. Polym Degrad Stab, 2013, 98(4): 863-867.

[213] Wibowo S, Velazquez G, Savant V, Torres JA. Effect of chitosan type on protein and water recovery efficiency from surimi wash water treated with chitosan–alginate complexes. Biores Technol, 2007, 98(3): 539-545.

[214] Wijesekara I, Kim S-K. Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors from marine resources: prospects in the pharmaceutical industry. Mar Drugs, 2010, 8(4): 1080-1093.

[215] Xu Y, Gallert C, Winter J. Chitin purification from shrimp waste by microbial deproteinisation and decalcification. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2008, 79: 687-697.

[216] Hayes M. Hayes M. Chitin, chitosan and their derivatives from marine rest raw materials: potential food and pharmaceutical applications. Marine bioactive compounds: sources, characterization and applications, 2012, USA: Springer

[217] Sabatini P (2015) Lobster—commodity update. Globefish, FAO

[218] Yamashita E. The effects of a dietary supplement containing astaxanthin on skin condition. Food Style 21, 2005, 9(9): 72-80.

[219] Yamashita E. Astaxanthin and sports performance. Food Style, 2011, 21: 15-20.

[220] Yamashita E. Astaxanthin as a medical food. Funct Foods Health Dis, 2013, 3(7): 254-258.

[221] Yan N, Chen X. Don’t waste seafood waste. Nature, 2015, 254: 155-157.

[222] Yilmaz B, Sahin K, Bilen H, Bahcecioglu IH, Bilir B, Ashraf S, Halazun KJ, Kucuk O. Carotenoids and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr, 2015, 4(3): 161-171.

[223] Yook JS, Okamoto M, Rakwal R, Shibato J, Lee MC, Matsui T, Chang HK, Cho JY, Soya H. Astaxanthin supplementation enhances adult hippocampal neurogenesis and spatial memory in mice. Mol Nutr Food Res, 2015, 3(60): 589-599.

[224] Zhang J, Yan N. Formic acid-mediated liquefaction of chitin. Green Chem, 2016, 18(18): 5050-5058.

[225] Zhang X-S, Zhang X, Wu Q, Li W, Zhang Q-R, Wang C-X, Zhou X-M, Li H, Shi J-X, Zhou M-L. Astaxanthin alleviates early brain injury following subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats: possible involvement of Akt/bad signaling. Mar Drugs, 2014, 12(8): 4291-4310.

[226] Zhang X-S, Zhang X, Zhou M-L, Zhou X-M, Li N, Li W, Cong Z-X, Sun Q, Zhuang Z, Wang C-X. Amelioration of oxidative stress and protection against early brain injury by astaxanthin after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage: laboratory investigation. J Neurosurg, 2014, 121(1): 42-54.

Funding

South Australia Premier's Research and Industry(PRIF IVP37)