Current status of cow dung as a bioresource for sustainable development

Abstract

Cow dung, an excreta of bovine animal, is a cheap and easily available bioresource on our planet. Many traditional uses of cow dung such as burning as fuel, mosquito repellent and as cleansing agent are already known in India. Cow dung harbours a diverse group of microorganisms that may be beneficial to humans due to their ability to produce a range of metabolites. Along with the production of novel chemicals, many cow dung microorganisms have shown natural ability to increase soil fertility through phosphate solubilisation. Nowadays, there is an increasing research interest in developing the applications of cow dung microorganisms for biofuel production and management of environmental pollutants. This review focuses on recent findings being made on cow dung that could be harnessed for usage in different areas such as medicine, agriculture and industry.

Keywords

Cow dung / Biogas / Bioremediation / Enzymes / Antibiotics / Antimicrobial

References

[1] Abo-State MA, Mahdy HM, Ezzat SM, Abd El Shakour EH, El-Bahnasawy MA. Antimicrobial resistance profiles of Enterobacteriaceae isolated from Rosetta Branch of River Nile, Egypt. World Appl Sci J, 2012, 19: 1234-1243.

[2] Adams GO, Tawari-Fufeyin P, Ehinomen I. Laboratory scale bioremediation of soils from automobile mechanic workshops using cow dung. J Appl Environ Microbiol, 2014, 2: 128-134.

[3] Adebusoye SA, Ilori MO, Amund OO, Teniola OD, Olatope SO. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a polluted tropical stream. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 2007, 23: 1149-1159.

[4] Akinde SB, Obire O. Aerobic heterotrophic bacteria and petroleum-utilizing bacteria from cow dung and poultry manure. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 2008, 24: 1999-2002.

[5] Ali H, Khan E, Sajad M. Phytoremediation of heavy metals-concepts and applications. Chemosphere, 2013, 91: 869-881.

[6] Aly MEA, Essam TM, Amin MA. Antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli strains isolated from clinical specimens and food samples in Egypt. Int J Microbiol Res, 2012, 3: 176-182.

[7] Amin M, Rakhisi Z, Ahmady AZ. Isolation and identification of Bacillus Species from soil and evaluation of their antibacterial properties. Avicenna J Clin Microb Infec, 2015, 2: e23233.

[8] Annison G. Commercial enzyme supplementation of wheat based diets raises ileal glycanase activities and improves apparent metabolisable energy, starch and pentosan digestibilities in broiler chickens. Anim Feed Sci Technol, 1992, 38: 105-121.

[9] Arcand MM, Schneider KD. Plant and microbial-based mechanisms to improve the agronomic effectiveness of phosphate rock: a review. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 2006, 78: 791-807.

[10] Arslan EI, Öbek E, Kirba S, Pek U, Topal M. Determination of the effect of compost on soil microorganisms. Int J Sci Technol, 2008, 3: 151-159.

[11] Ayoola OT, Makinde EA. Performance of green maize and soil nutrient changes with fortified cow dung. Afr J Plant Sci, 2008, 2: 19-22.

[12] Babic S, Mutavdzic D, Asperger D, Horvat AJM, Kaštelan-Macan M. Determination of veterinary pharmaceuticals in production wastewater by HPTLC-video densitometry. Chromatographia, 2007, 65: 105-110.

[13] Bachofen R, Birch L, Buchs U, Ferloni P, Flynn I, Jud G, Tahedel H, Chasteen TG. Hinchee RE. Volatalization of arsenic compounds by microorganisms. Bioremediation of inorganics, 1995, Columbus: Batelle Press.

[14] Bahadure S, Kalia R, Chavan R. Comparative study of bioremediation of hydrocarbon fuels. Int J Biotechnol Bioeng Res, 2013, 4: 677-686.

[15] Barot NS, Bagla HK. Biosorption of radiotoxic 90Sr by green adsorbent: dry cow dung powder. J Radioanal Nucl Chem, 2012, 294: 81-86.

[16] Barroso CB, Pereira GT, Nahas E. Solubilization of CaHPO₄ and AlPO₄ by Aspergillus niger in culture media with different carbon and nitrogen sources. Braz J Microbiol, 2006, 37: 434-438.

[17] Basak AB, Lee MW. In vitro inhibitory activity of cow urine and cow dung of Fusarium Solani F Sp. Cucurbitae. Microbiology, 2002, 30: 51-54.

[18] Bélanger G, Rochette P, Chantigny M, Ziadi N, Angers D, Charbonneau E, Pellerin D, Liang C. Nitrogen availability from dairy cow dung and urine applied to forage grasses in eastern Canada. Can J Plant Sci, 2014, 95: 55-65.

[19] Bedada W, Karltun E, Lemenih M, Tolera M. Long-term addition of compost and NP fertilizer increases crop yield and improves soil quality in experiments on smallholder farms. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2014, 195: 193-201.

[20] Bernal MP, Alburquerque JA, Moral R. Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment—review. Bioresour Technol, 2009, 100: 5444-5453.

[21] Bhattacharjya D, Sung YJ. Activated carbon made from cow dung as electrode material for electrochemical double layer capacitor. J Power Sources, 2014, 262: 224-231.

[22] Bhattacharjya D, Park HY, Kim MS, Choi HS, Inamdar SN, Yu JS. Nitrogen-doped carbon nanoparticles by flame synthesis as anode material for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Langmuir, 2013, 30: 318-324.

[23] Biswal M, Banerjee A, Deo M, Ogale S. From dead leaves to high energy density supercapacitors. Energy Environ Sci, 2013, 6: 1249-1259.

[24] Boricha H, Fulekar MH. Pseudomonas plecoglossicida as a novel organism for the bioremediation of cypermethrin. Biol Med, 2009, 1: 1-10.

[25] Brown RC. Biorenewable resources—engineering new products from agriculture, 2003, London: Lowa state press.

[26] Buvaneswari S, Damodarkumar S, Murugesan S. Bioremediation studies on sugar-mill effluent by selected fungal species. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci, 2013, 2: 50-58.

[27] Cajthaml T, Möder M, Kačer P, Šašek V, Popp P. Study of fungal degradation products of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using gas chromatography with ion trap mass spectrometry detection. J Chromatogr A, 2002, 974: 213-222.

[28] Chauhan RS. Cowpathy: a new version of ancient science. Employ News, 2005, 30: 1-2.

[29] Cookson JT. Bioremediation engineering: design and application, 1995, New York: Mcgraw-Hill.

[30] Das A, Bhattacharya S, Murali L. Production of cellulose from thermophilic Bacillus sp. isolated from cow dung. Am Eurasian J Agric Environ Sci, 2010, 8: 685-691.

[31] Demiral H, Demiral I. Surface properties of activated carbon prepared from wastes. Surf Interface Anal, 2008, 40: 612-615.

[32] Dhama K, Chauhan RS, Singhal L. Anti-cancer activity of cow urine: current status and future directions. Int J Cow Sci, 2005, 1: 1-25.

[33] Dhama K, Rathore R, Chauhan RS, Tomar S. Panchgavya: an overview. Int J Cow Sci, 2005, 1: 1-15.

[34] Dhama K, Chakraborty S, Tiwari R. Panchgavya therapy (Cowpathy) in safeguarding health of animals and humans—a review. Res Opin Anim Vet Sci, 2013, 3: 170-178.

[35] Dhami JK, Singh H, Gupta M. Industrialization at the cost of environment degradation—a case of leather and iron and steel industry from Punjab economy. Innov J Bus Manag, 2013, 2: 19-21.

[36] Donovan B (2008) Breathe in the cow dung, cockies—it’ll cut your cancer risk. In: The New Zealand Herald. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10489178. Accessed 25 Jul 2015

[37] Dorothy ET, Frisvad JC. Eupenicillium bovifimosum, a new species from dried cow manure in Wyoming. Mycologia, 2002, 94: 240-246.

[38] Dowd SE, Callaway TR, Wolcott RD, Sun Y, McKeehan T, Hagevoort RG, Edrington T. Evaluation of the bacterial diversity in the feces of cattle using 16S rDNA bacterial tag-encoded FLX amplicon pyrosequencing (bTEFAP). BMC Microbiol, 2008, 8: 125.

[39] Encarna VZ, Trinidad DM, Margarita P, Rau R, Ramo´n RM, Toma GV. Paenibacillus favisporus sp. nov., a xylanolytic bacterium isolated from cow faeces. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2004, 54: 59-64.

[40] Ewusi-Mensah N, Logah V, Akrasi EJ. Impact of different systems of manure management on the quality of cow dung. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal, 2015, 46: 137-147.

[41] Falco C, Sieben JM, Brun N, Sevilla M, Mauelen T, Morallón E, Cazorla-Amorós D, Titirici MM. Hydrothermal carbons from hemicellulose-derived aqueous hydrolysis products as electrode materials for supercapacitors. Chem Sus Chem, 2013, 6: 374-382.

[42] Fang B, Kim JH, Kim M, Yu JS. Ordered hierarchical nanostructured carbon as a highly efficient cathode catalyst support in proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Chem Mater, 2009, 21: 789-796.

[43] Feng Q, Lin Q, Gong F, Sugita S, Shoya M. Adsorption of lead and mercury by rice husk ash. J Colloid Interf Sci, 2004, 278: 1-8.

[44] Fick J, Söderström H, Lindberg RH, Chau DNP, Tysklind M, Larsson DGJ. Contamination of surface, ground, and drinking water from pharmaceutical production. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2009, 28: 2522-2527.

[45] Freeman HM, Harris EF. Hazardous waste remediation: innovation treatment technologies, 1995, Lancaster: Technomic Publ Co., Inc., 342.

[46] Freer SN, Detroy RW. Biological delignification of C-labelled lignocelluloses by basidiomycetes: degradation and solubilization of the lignin and cellulose components. Mycologia, 1982, 74: 943-951.

[47] Fulekar MH, Geetha M. Bioremediation of Chlorpyrifos by Pseudomonas aeruginosa using scale up technique. J Appl Biosci, 2008, 12: 657-660.

[48] Gamby J, Taberna PL, Simon P, Fauvarque JF, Chesneau M. Studies and characterisations of various activated carbons used for carbon/carbon supercapacitors. J Power Sources, 2001, 101: 109-116.

[49] Garg VK, Kaushik P. Vermistabilization of textile mill sludge spiked with poultry droppings by an epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida. Bioresour Technol, 2005, 96: 1063-1071.

[50] Garg AK, Mudgal V. Organic and mineral composition of Gomeya (cow dung) from Desi and crossbred cows—a comparative study. Int J Cow Sci, 2007, 3: 1-2.

[51] Garg RN, Pathak H, Das DK, Tomar RK. Use of fly ash and biogas slurry for improving wheat yield and physical properties of soil. Environ Monit Assess, 2005, 107: 1-9.

[52] Geetha M, Fulekar MH. Bioremediation of pesticides in surface soil treatment unit using microbial consortia. Afr J Environ Sci Technol, 2008, 2: 36-45.

[53] Gentile R, Vanlauwe B, Chivenge P, Six J. Trade-offs between the short- and long-term effects of residue quality on soil C and N dynamics. Plant Soil, 2011, 338: 159-169.

[54] Girija D, Deepa K, Xavier F, Antony I, Shidhi PR. Analysis of cow dung microbiota—a metagenomic approach. Indian J Biotech, 2013, 12: 372-378.

[55] Gounot AM. Psychrophilic and psychrotrophic microorganisms. Experimentia, 1986, 42: 1192-1197.

[56] Guo Y, Tang H, Li G, Xie D. Effects of cow dung biochar amendment on adsorption and leaching of nutrient from an acid yellow soil irrigated with biogas slurry. Water Air Soil Pollut, 2014, 225: 1820.

[57] Haritash AK, Kaushik CP. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. J Hazard Mater, 2009, 169: 1-15.

[58] Hilyard EJ, Jones-Meehan JM, Spargo BJ, Hill RT. Enrichment, isolation, and phylogenetic identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbondegrading bacteria from Elizabeth river sediments. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2008, 74: 1176-1182.

[59] Hossain MN, Rahman MM. Antagonistic activity of antibiotic producing Streptomyces sp. against fish and human pathogenic bacteria. Braz Arch Biol Technol, 2014, 57: 233-237.

[60] Hu B, Wang K, Wu L, Yu SH, Antonietti M, Titirici MM. Engineering carbon materials from the hydrothermal carbonization process of biomass. Adv Mater, 2010, 22: 813-828.

[61] Huang C, Sun T, Hulicova-Jurcakova D. Wide electrochemical window of supercapacitors from coffee bean derived phosphorus rich carbons. Chem Sus Chem, 2013, 6: 2330-2339.

[62] Illavarasi S (2014) Isolation and identification of cellulase producing bacteria from cow dung. SIRJ-MBT 1

[63] Inamdar S, Choi HS, Wang P, Song MY, Yu JS. Sulfur-containing carbon by flame synthesis as efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction. Electrochem Commun, 2013, 30: 9-12.

[64] Islam MR, Rahman SME, Rahman MM, Oh DH, Ra CS. The effects of biogas slurry on the production and quality of maize fodder. Turk J Agric For, 2010, 34: 91-99.

[65] Jain NK, Gupta VB, Garg R, Silawat N. Efficacy of cow urine therapy on various cancer patients in Mandsaur District, India—a survey. Int J Green Pharm, 2010, 4: 29-35.

[66] Jarald E, Edwin S, Tiwari V, Garg R, Toppo E. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of cow urine. Global J Pharmacol, 2008, 2: 20-22.

[67] Jeyasanta KI, Aiyamperumal V, Patterson J. Prevalence of antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli in sea foods of Tuticorin coast, southeastern India. Adv Biol Res, 2012, 6: 70-77.

[68] Joseph B, Sankarganesh P. Antifungal efficacy of panchgavya. Int J Pharm Tech Res, 2011, 3: 585-588.

[69] Kala DR, Rosenani AB, Fauziah CI, Thohirah LA. Composting oil palm wastes and sewage sludge for use in potting media of ornamental plants. Malays J Soil Sci, 2009, 13: 77-91.

[70] Kalia A, Singh S. Development of a biogas plant. Energy Sources, 2004, 26: 707-714.

[71] Kang BT, Juo ASR (1980) Management of low-activity clay soils in Tropical Africa for food crop production. In: Terry ER, Oduro KA, Caveness F (eds) Tropical root crops: research strategies for the 1980s. IDRC, Ottawa, p 129–133

[72] Kanwar SS, Guleri RL. Performance evaluation of a family size rubber balloon biogas plant under hilly conditions. Biores Technol, 1994, 50: 119-121.

[73] Kashyap DR, Dadhich KS, Sharma SK. Biomethanation under psychrophilic conditions: a review. Bioresour Technol, 2003, 87: 147-153.

[74] Kessler R. Pharmaceutical factories as a source of drugs in water. Environ Health Perspect, 2010, 118: 383.

[75] Khamna S, Yokota A, Lumyong S. Actinomycetes isolated from medicinal plant rhizosphere soils: diversity and screening of antifungal compounds, indole-3-acetic acid and siderophore production. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 2009, 25: 649-655.

[76] Kiaune L, Singhasemanon N. Pesticidal copper(I)oxide: environmental fate and aquatic toxicity. Rev Environ Contam T, 2011, 213: 1-26.

[77] Kim JH, Fang B, Song MY, Yu JS. Topological transformation of thioether-bridged organosilicas into nanostructured functional materials. Chem Mater, 2012, 24: 2256-2264.

[78] Kristiansson E, Fick J, Janzon A, Grabic R, Rutgersson C, Weijdegård B, Söderström H, Larsson DJ. Pyrosequencing of antibiotic-contaminated river sediments reveals high levels of resistance and gene transfer elements. PLoS One, 2011, 6: e17038.

[79] Kuhad RC, Singh S, Lata Singh A. Singh A, Parmar N, Kuhad RC. Phosphate solubilising microorganisms. Bioaugmentation, biostimulation and biocontrol, soil biology series, 2011, Heidelberg: Springer, 65-84.

[80] Lakshmi SS, Gayathri M, Sudha PN. Study on removal of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution using sulphonated black rice husk ash and sulphonated white rice husk ash. Nat Environ Pollut Technol, 2008, 7: 733-736.

[81] Lamed R, Bayer E, Saha BC, Zeikus JG (1988) Biotechnological potential of enzyme from unique thermophiles. In: Durand G, Bobichon L, Florent J (eds) Proceedings of the 8th international biotechnology symposium, Paris, 1988

[82] Larsson DJ. Antibiotics in the environment. Upsala J Med Sci, 2014, 119: 108-112.

[83] Lauková A, Czikková S, Vasilková Z, Juris P, Mareková M. Occurrence of bacteriocin production among environmental Enterococci. Lett Appl Microbiol, 1998, 27: 178-182.

[84] Lee J, Kim J, Hyeon T. Recent progress in the synthesis of porous carbon materials. Adv Mater, 2006, 18: 2073-2094.

[85] Lehr NA, Meffert A, Antelo L, Sterner O, Anke H, Weber RWS. Antiamoebins, myrocin B and the basis of antifungal biosis in the coprophilous fungus Stilbella erythrocephala (syn. Stilbella fimetaria). FEMS Microbiol Ecol, 2006, 55: 105-112.

[86] Lehrer A, Bressanelli A, Wachsmann V, Bottasso O, Bay ML, Singh M, Stanford C, Stanford J. Immunotherapy with Mycobacterium vaccae in the treatment of psoriasis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol, 1998, 21: 71-77.

[87] Li R, Chen S, Li X. Anaerobic co-digestion of kitchen waste and cattle manure for methane production. Energy Source Part A Recovery Util Environ Eff, 2009, 31: 1848-1856.

[88] Li X, Han C, Chen X, Shi C. Preparation and performance of straw based activated carbon for supercapacitor in non-aqueous electrolytes. Microporous Mesoporous Mater, 2010, 131: 303-309.

[89] Li X, Xing W, Zhuo S, Zhou J, Li F, Qiao SZ, Lu GQ. Preparation of capacitor’s electrode from sunflower seed shell. Bioresour Technol, 2011, 102: 1118-1123.

[90] Li J, Jha AK, Bajracharya TR. Dry anaerobic co-digestion of cow dung with pig manure for methane production. Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 2014, 173: 1537-1552.

[91] Ministry of Agriculture Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries Krishi Bhawan. Livestock Census—2012 All India Report, 2012, New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries Krishi Bhawan.

[92] Lowry CA, Hollis JH, De Vries A, Pan B, Brunet LR, Hunt JRF, Lightman SL. Identification of an immune-responsive mesolimbocortical serotonergic system: potential role in regulation of emotional behavior. Neuroscience, 2007, 146: 756-772.

[93] Lu J, Jiang L, Chen D, Toyota K, Strong PJ, Wang H, Hirasawa T. Decontamination of anaerobically digested slurry in a paddy field ecosystem in Jiaxing region of China. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2012, 146: 13-22.

[94] Lu H, Wang X, Zhang K, Xu Y, Zhou L, Li G. Identification and nematicidal activity of bacteria isolated from cow dung. Ann Microbiol, 2014, 64: 407-411.

[95] Maat J, Roza M, Verbakel J, Stam H, Santos de Silva MJ, Bosse M, Hessing JGM, Egmond MR, Hagemans MLD, Gorcom RFM. Visser J, van Someren MAK, Beldman G, Voragen AGJ. Xylanases and their application in bakery. Xylans and xylanases, 1992, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 349-360.

[96] Macias FA, Marin D, Oliveros-Bastidas A, Varela RM, Simonet AM, Carrera C, Molinillo JMG. Allelopathy as a new strategy for sustainable ecosystems development. Biol Sci Space, 2003, 17: 18-23.

[97] Madu PC, Akpaiyo GD, Ikoku P. Biosorption of Cr³⁺, Pb²⁺, and Cd²⁺ ions from aqueous solution using modified and unmodified millet chaff. J Chem Pharm Res, 2011, 3: 467-477.

[98] Mary CA, Dav VPS, Karunakaran K, Nair NR. Cow dung extract for controlling bacterial blight. Int Rice res News, 1986, 11: 19.

[99] Matthews DM, Jenks SM. Ingestion of Mycobacterium vaccae decreases anxiety-related behavior and improves learning in mice. Behav Process, 2013, 96: 27-35.

[100] Mohan L, Gupta D. Study on removal of chromium from aqueous solution using dry cow dung powder. J Chem Pharm Res, 2014, 6: 1066-1070.

[101] Mohapatra D, Mishra D, Rout M, Chaudhury GR. Adsorption kinetics of natural dissolved organic matter and its impact on arsenic(V) leachability from arsenic loaded ferrihydrite and Al-ferrihydrite. J Environ Sci Health Part A, 2007, 42: 81-88.

[102] Mohapatra D, Mishra D, Chaudhury RG, Das RP. Removal of arsenic from arsenic rich sludge by volatilization using anaerobic microorganisms treated with cow dung, soil and sediment contamination. An Int J, 2008, 17: 301-311.

[103] Munda US, Pholane L, Kar DD, Meikap BC. Production of bioenergy from composite waste materials made of corn waste, spent tea waste, and kitchen waste co-mixed with cow dung. Int J Green Energy, 2012, 9: 361-375.

[104] Naiemi NA, Heddema ER, Bart A, De Jonge E, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CM, Savelkoul PH, Duim B. Emergence of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria during selective decontamination of the digestive tract on an intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2006, 58: 853-856.

[105] Nene YL (1999) Utilizing traditional knowledge in agriculture. Traditional knowledge system of India and Sri Lanka, pp 32–38

[106] Onwudike SU. Effectiveness of cow dung and mineral fertilizer on soil properties, nutrient uptake and yield of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) in Southeastern Nigeria. Asian J Agric Res, 2010, 4: 148-154.

[107] Orji FA, Ibiere AA, Dike EN. Laboratory scale bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted mangrove swamp in the Niger Delta using cow dung. Malays J Microbiol, 2012, 8: 219-228.

[108] Paliwal R, Sahni YP, Singh SK, Sen S. Effect of panchgavya on central actions in albino rats. Pharma Sci Monit, 2013, 4: 3940-3946.

[109] Palm CA, Robert JKM, Stephen MN. Hatfield J, Bigham JM, Krai DM, Viney MK. Combined use of organic and inorganic nutrient sources for soil fertility maintenance and replenishment. Replenshing soil fertility in Africa, 1997, Madison: SSSA.

[110] Pandey A, Gundevia HS. Role of the fungus—Periconiella sp. in destruction of biomedical waste. J Environ Sci Eng, 2008, 50: 239-240.

[111] Passatore L, Rossetti S, Juwarkar AA, Massacci A. Phytoremediation and bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): state of knowledge and research perspectives. J Hazard Mater, 2014, 278: 189-202.

[112] Pathak ML, Kumar A. Cow praising and importance of Panchyagavya as medicine. Sachitra Ayurveda, 2003, 5: 56-59.

[113] Peterson J, MacDonell M, Haroun L, Monette F, Hildebrand RD, Taboas A (2007) Radiological and chemical fact sheets to support health risk analyses for contaminated areas. Argonne Natl Lab Environ Sci Division 133

[114] Phillips PJ, Smith SG, Kolpin DW, Zaugg SD, Buxton HT, Furlong ET, Esposito K, Stinson B. Pharmaceutical formulation facilities as sources of opioids and other pharmaceuticals to wastewater treatment plant effluents. Environ Sci Technol, 2010, 44: 4910-4916.

[115] Pongrácz E, Pohjola VJ. Re-defining waste, the concept of ownership and the role of waste management. Resour Conserv Recycl, 2004, 40: 141-153.

[116] Radha TK, Rao DLN. Plant growth promoting bacteria from cow dung based biodynamic preparations. Indian J Microbiol, 2014, 54: 413-418.

[117] Rana G, Mandal T, Mandal NK. Generation of high calorific fuel gas by photosynthetic bacteria isolated from cow dung. Int J Res, 2014, 1: 115-128.

[118] Randhawa GK, Kullar JS. Bioremediation of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and petrochemicals with gomeya/cow dung. ISRN Pharmacol, 2011

[119] Rehmann K, Noll HP, Steinberg CE, Kettrup AA. Pyrene degradation by Mycobacterium sp. strain KR2. Chemosphere, 1998, 36: 2977-2992.

[120] Reyes I, Valery A, Valduz Z. Phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms isolated from rhizospheric and bulk soils of colonizer plants at an abandoned rock phosphate mine. Plant Soil, 2006, 287: 69-75.

[121] Rook GAW, Stanford JL (1988) Immunotherapeutic composition of killed cells from mycobacterium vaccae. US patent 4724144. 11 Nov 1988

[122] Rupela OP, Gopalakrishnan S, Krajewski M, Sriveni M. A novel method for the identification and enumeration of microorganisms with potential for suppressing fungal plant pathogens. Biol Fertil Soils, 2003, 39: 131-134.

[123] Ryan JR, Loehr RC, Rucker E. Bioremediation of organic contaminated soils. J Hazard Mater, 1991, 28: 159-169.

[124] Sadhu S, Saha P, Sen SK, Mayilraj S, Maiti TK. Production, purification and characterization of a novel thermotolerant endoglucanase (CMCase) from Bacillus strain isolated from cow dung. Springerplus, 2013, 2: 1-10.

[125] Sadhu S, Ghosh PK, Aditya G, Maiti TK. Optimization and strain improvement by mutation for enhanced cellulase production by Bacillus sp. (MTCC10046) isolated from cow dung. J King Saud Univ Sci, 2014, 26: 323-332.

[126] Safley LM, Westerman PW. Psychrophilic anaerobic digestion of animal manure: proposed design methodology. Biol Wastes, 1990, 34: 133-148.

[127] Sanaei-Moghadam A, Abbaspour-Fard MH, Aghel H, Aghkhani MH, Abedini-Torghabeh J. Enhancement of biogas production by co-digestion of potato pulp with cow manure in a CSTR system. Appl Biochem Biotechnol, 2014, 173: 1858-1869.

[128] Santos OCS, Soares AR, Machado FLS, Romanos MTV, Muricy G, Giambiagi-deMarval M, Laport MS. Investigation of biotechnological potential of sponge-associated bacteria collected in Brazilian coast. Lett Appl Microbiol, 2015, 60: 140-147.

[129] Sathasivam A, Muthuselvam M, Rajendran R. Antimicrobial activities of cow urine distillate against some clinical pathogens. Glob J Pharmacol, 2010, 4: 41-44.

[130] Sawant AA, Hegde NV, Straley BA, Donaldson SC, Love BC, Knabel SJ, Jayarao BM. Antimicrobial-resistant enteric bacteria from dairy cattle. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2007, 73: 156-163.

[131] Sharif MR, Alizargar J, Sharif A. Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacteria isolated from different samples of patients admitted to a University hospital in Kashan, Iran. Adv Biol Res, 2013, 7: 199-202.

[132] Sharma CK (2011). Biogas—a boon for India. Biofuels 2–3

[133] Shrivastava S, Mishra A, Pal A. Cow dung—a boon for antimicrobial activity. Lifesci Leafl, 2014, 55: 60-63.

[134] Singh D, Fulekar MH. Bioremediation of phenol using microbial consortium in bioreactor. Innov Rom Food Biotechnol, 2007, 1: 31-36.

[135] Singh A, Kohli JS. Effect of pollution on common man in India: a legal perspective. Adv Life Sci Technol, 2012, 4: 35-41.

[136] Somasundaram E, Amanullah MM, Vaiyapuri K, Thirukkumaran K, Sathyamoorthi K. Influence of organic sources of nutrients on the yield and economics of crops under maize based cropping system. J Appl Sci Res, 2007, 3: 1774-1777.

[137] Soni R, Gupta A. Batch biosorption studies of Cr(VI) by using Zygnema (Green Algae). J Chem Pharm Res, 2011, 3: 950-960.

[138] Stalin V, Perumal K, Stanley Abraham L, Kalaichelvan PT. Screening and production of subtilin from Bacillus subtilis isolated from nutrient-rich organic and biodynamic manures. IUP J Life Sci, 2010, 4: 34-44.

[139] Swain MC, Kar S, Padmaja G, Ray RC. Partial characterisation and optimisation of production of extracellular α-amylase from Bacillus subtilis isolated from culturable cow dung microflora. Pol J Microbiol, 2006, 55: 289-296.

[140] Swain MR, Laxminarayana K, Ray RC. Phosphorus solubilization by thermotolerant Bacillus subtilis isolated from cow dung microflora. Agric Res, 2012, 1: 273-279.

[141] Teo KC, Teoh SM. Preliminary biological screening of microbes isolated from cow dung in Kampar. Afr J Biotechnol, 2011, 10: 1640-1645.

[142] Thajeel AS, Al-Faize MM, Raheem AZ. Adsorption of Pb⁺² and Zn⁺² ions from oil wells onto activated carbon produced from rice husk in batch adsorption process. J Chem Pharm Res, 2013, 5: 240-250.

[143] The Hindu (2011) About 70 per cent Indians live in rural areas: Census report. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/about70percentindiansliveinruralareascensusreport/article2230211.ece. Accessed 24 Jul 2015

[144] Thomas KV, Dye C, Schlabach M, Langford KH. Source to sink tracking of selected human pharmaceuticals from two Oslo city hospitals and a wastewater treatment works. J Environ Monit, 2007, 9: 1410-1418.

[145] Ullah A, Durrani R, Ullah I, Rafiq M. Antibiotic resistance profile of clinical gram negative bacteria. J Biol Food Sci Res, 2012, 1: 23-25.

[146] Umanu G, Nwachukwu SCU, Olasode OK. Effects of cow dung on microbial degradation of motor oil in lagoon water. GJBB, 2013, 2: 542-548.

[147] USEIA (2014) Today in India—India is increasingly dependent on imported fossil fuels as demand continues to rise. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/deatils.cfm?id=17551. Accessed 07 Apr 2015

[148] Vakili M, Zwain HM, Rafatullah M, Gholami Z, Mohammadpour R. Potentiality of palm oil biomass with cow dung for compost production. KSCE J Civil Eng, 2015, 19: 1994-1999.

[149] Viikari L, Kantelinen A, Sundquist J, Linko M. Xylanases in bleaching: from an idea to the industry. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 1994, 13: 335-350.

[150] Vijayaraghavan P, Vincent SGP. Cow dung as a novel, inexpensive substrate for the production of a halo-tolerant alkaline protease by Halomonas sp. PV1 for eco-friendly applications. Biochem Eng J, 2012, 69: 57-60.

[151] Vijayaraghavan P, Vincent SGP. Statistical optimization of fibrinolytic enzyme production by Pseudoalteromonas sp. IND11 using cow dung substrate by response surface methodology. Springerplus, 2014, 3: 1-10.

[152] Vijayaraghavan P, Vijayan A, Arun A, Jenisha J, Vincent SGP. Cow dung: a potential biomass substrate for the production of detergent-stable dehairing protease by alkaliphilic Bacillus subtilis strain VV. Springerplus, 2012, 1: 76.

[153] Wachendorf C, Taube F, Wachendorf M. Nitrogen leaching from N-15 labelled cow urine and dung applied to grassland on a sandy soil. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst, 2005, 73: 89-100.

[154] Wang L, Mu G, Tian C, Sun L, Zhou W, Yu P, Yin J, Fu H. Porous graphitic carbon nanosheets derived from cornstalk biomass for advanced supercapacitors. Chem Sus Chem, 2013, 6: 880-889.

[155] Wei L, Sevilla M, Fuertes AB, Mokaya R, Yushin G. Hydrothermal carbonization of abundant renewable natural organic chemicals for high-performance supercapacitor electrodes. Adv Energy Mater, 2011, 1: 356-361.

[156] Werner U, Stöhr U, Hees N (1989) Biogas plants in animal husbandry. Deutsches Zentrum für Entwicklungstechnologien-GATE

[157] Wicklow DT (1992) The coprophilous fungal community: and experimental system. In Carrol GC, Wicklow DT (eds) The fungal community. Its organisation and role in the ecosystem, 2nd edn. Marcel Dekker, New York

[158] Wicklow DT, Detroy RW, Jessee BA. Decomposition of lignocellulose by Cyathus stercoreus (Schw.) de Toni NRRL 6473, a “white rot” fungus from cattle dung. Appl Environ Microbiol, 1980, 40: 169-170.

[159] Willey MJ, Sherwood ML, Woolverton JC. Prescott, Harley, and Klein’s Microbiology, 2008, New York: The McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

[160] Williams KH, Bargar JR, Lloyd JR, Lovley DR. Bioremediation of uranium-contaminated groundwater: a systems approach to subsurface biogeochemistry. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 2013, 24: 489-497.

[161] World Health Organization. Report on TBEE. Environmental Health Criteria. International program on chemical safety, 1990

[162] Wu B, Oesker V, Wiese J, Schmaljohann R, Imhoff JF. Two new antibiotic pyridones produced by a marine fungus, Trichoderma sp. strain mf106. Mar drugs, 2014, 12: 1208-1219.

[163] Xu B, Hou S, Cao G, Wu F, Yang Y. Sustainable nitrogen-doped porous carbon with high surface areas prepared from gelatin for supercapacitors. J Mater Chem, 2012, 22: 19088-19093.

[164] Yadav A, Gupta R, Garg VK. Organic manure production from cow dung and biogas plant slurry by vermicomposting under field conditions. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric, 2013, 2: 21.

[165] Yang DS, Bhattacharjya D, Inamdar S, Park J, Yu JS. Phosphorus-doped ordered mesoporous carbons with different lengths as efficient metal-free electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media. Am Chem Soc, 2012, 134: 16127-16130.

[166] Yang DS, Bhattacharjya D, Song MY, Yu JS. Highly efficient metal-free phosphorus-doped platelet ordered mesoporous carbon for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction. Carbon, 2014, 67: 736-743.

[167] Zhang X, Sun Y, Bao J, He F, Xu X, Qi S. Phylogenetic survey and antimicrobial activity of culturable microorganisms associated with the South China Sea black coral Antipathes dichotoma. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 2012, 33: 122-130.