A review of current status of epilepsy after traumatic brain injuries: Pathophysiology, clinical outcomes, and emerging treatment strategies

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of neurological dysfunction worldwide, often resulting in long-lasting cognitive, motor, and psychiatric disorders. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the neurological complications that arise following TBI, focusing on the underlying mechanisms and the clinical manifestations observed in affected patients. TBI induces a complex cascade of biochemical events, including neuronal injury, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and excitotoxicity, which collectively contribute to the onset of various neurological disorders. One of the most common and debilitating consequences of TBI is post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE), which frequently develops in patients as a long-term sequela. The review discusses the pathophysiology of PTE, examining how brain injury alters neuronal excitability and predisposes patients to recurrent seizures. In addition to epilepsy, TBI often leads to cognitive impairments, such as memory loss, attention deficits, and executive dysfunction, which significantly affect patients’ daily functioning. Motor impairments, including weakness, spasticity, and coordination issues, are common among TBI patients and can severely limit their mobility and independence. These motor deficits are primarily associated with injury to the motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, are prevalent in TBI patients and further complicate their recovery. This review emphasizes the need for early diagnosis, targeted interventions, and novel therapeutic strategies to manage the diverse and complex neurological consequences of TBI. A deeper understanding of the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of TBI-related neurological disorders is crucial for improving patient outcomes and enhancing quality of life.

Keywords

Traumatic brain injury / Post-traumatic epilepsy / Cognitive impairments / Neuroinflammation / Motor deficits / Psychiatric disorders / Neurological sequelae

Funding

None.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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