ANeRF: Adversarial neural radiance fields for efficient 3D-aware synthesis

i

This article has been updated. A Correction to this article was published on .

i

The Original Article was published on

i

The Original Article was published on

i

This article has been updated

i

This article was retracted on

i

This article has been updated

Abstract

Conventional 3D image reconstruction algorithms suffer from fundamental limitations in disentangling 3D scene geometry from rendering processes, which results in poor generalization to novel viewpoints and object poses. To address this, we propose adversarial neural radiance fields (NeRF) for efficient 3D-aware synthesis. By reformulating NeRF as the generator within an adversarial paradigm, our approach bypasses traditional encoding-decoding pipelines through a direct coordinate-to-pixel transformation, thus significantly reducing the computational overhead. This bidirectional enhancement enables a generative adversarial network (GAN) to leverage NeRF’s efficient 3D-aware rendering, while NeRF benefits from adversarial regularization to overcome scene-specific overfitting. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that the proposed adversarial NeRF (ANeRF) performs well on benchmark datasets. ANeRF achieves a 3 dB improvement over traditional NeRF in terms of the peak signal-to- noise ratio (PSNR) upon convergence, while accelerating convergence to 6 × 10⁻³ loss in 34.4% fewer iterations. The framework maintains exceptional efficiency with 31.42 minutes per epoch and a memory footprint of 5.25 GB. It represents a 43% memory reduction compared to the baseline methods. This explicit 3D representation enables robust multiview consistency and precise scene manipulation, thus establishing a high-efficiency architectural foundation for potential Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality (AR/VR) content generation and digital twin simulations.

Keywords

neural radiance field / generative adversarial networks / adversarial training / 3D-aware image synthesis / coordinate-based generative modeling

CHANGE HISTORY

A Correction to this paper has been published:
https://doi.org

The Retraction Note was updated to reflect reception of statements of disagreement from all authors.

This article has been retracted.Please see the Retraction Notice for more detail:
https://doi.org

References

[1] A. Chatziagapi, G. G. Chrysos, D. Samaras, MI-NeRF: Learning a single NeRF for multiple identities, in European Conference on Computer Vision, (2025), 451-469.

[2] S. Basak, P. Corcoran, R. McDonnell, M. Schukat, 3D Face-model reconstruction from a single image: A feature aggregation approach using hierarchical transformer with weak supervision, Neural Networks, 156 (2022), 108-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2022.09.019

[3] H. Wei, W. Han, X. Dong, J. Shen, Towards high-fidelity 3D portrait generation with rich details by cross-view prior-aware diffusion, in Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 40 (2026), 10521-10529. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i13.38024

[4] M. Wang, S. Zhao, X. Dong, J. Shen, High-fidelity and high-efficiency talking portrait synthesis with detail-aware neural radiance fields, IEEE Trans. Visual Comput. Graphics, 31 (2024), 6022-6035. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2024.3488960

[5] T. Tsesmelis, L. Palmieri, M. Khoroshiltseva, A. Islam, G. Elkin, O. I. Shahar, et al., Re-assembling the past: the RePAIR dataset and benchmark for real world 2D and 3D puzzle solving, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 37 (2024), 30076-30105.

[6] C. Huang, Y. Hou, W. Ye, D. Huang, X. Huang, B. Lin, et al., NeRF-Det++: Incorporating semantic cues and perspective-aware depth supervision for indoor multi-view 3D detection, IEEE Trans. Image Process., 34 (2025), 2575-2587. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIP.2025.3560240

[7] P. Ticha, A. Sukop, Patient-reported outcomes in bilateral prophylactic mastectomy with breast reconstruction: A narrative review, Breast, 73 (2024), 103602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.breast.2023.103602

[8] I. J. Goodfellow, J. Pouget-Abadie, M. Mirza, B. Xu, D. Warde-Farley, S. Ozair, et al., Generative adversarial nets, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 27 (2014), 2672-2680.

[9] X. Qin, H. Shi, X. Dong, S. Zhang, A new method based on generative adversarial networks for multivariate time series prediction, Expert Syst., 41 (2024), e13700.

[10] U. Demirbaga, Advancing anomaly detection in cloud environments with cutting-edge generative AI for expert systems, Expert Syst., 42 (2025), e13722.

[11] F. Han, Y. Liang, Q. Ling, H. Han, An improved conditional wasserstein GAN with gradient penalty for gene expression profiling data augmentation based on data segmentation and depth feature constraint, IEEE Trans. Comput. Biol. Bioinf., 22 (2025), 1401-1414. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCBBIO.2025.3560097

[12] C. Ledig, L. Theis, F. Huszár, J. Caballero, A. P. Aitken, A. Tejani, et al., Photo-realistic single image super-resolution using a generative adversarial network, in 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), (2017), 105-114.

[13] H. Xu, Q. Li, J. Chen, Highlight removal from a single grayscale image using attentive GAN, Appl. Artif. Intell., 36 (2022), 1988441. https://doi.org/10.1080/08839514.2022.2127598

[14] L. Tran, X. Yin, X. Liu, Disentangled representation learning GAN for pose-invariant face recognition, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, (2017), 1415-1424.

[15] Z. Cai, Z. Xiong, H. Xu, P. Wang, W. Li, Y. Pan, Generative adversarial networks: A survey toward private and secure applications, ACM Comput. Surv., 54 (2021), 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1145/3459992

[16] Y. Bai, Y. Zhang, M. Ding, B. Ghanem, SOD-MTGAN: Small object detection via multi-task generative adversarial network, in Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV), (2018), 206-221.

[17] E. Denton, V. Birodkar, Unsupervised learning of disentangled representations from video, in Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, (2017), 4417-4426.

[18] S. Gu, D. Chen, J. Bao, F. Wen, B. Zhang, D. Chen, et al., Vector quantized diffusion model for text-to-image synthesis, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, (2022), 10696-10706.

[19] J. Lin, Z. Zhou, Q. Qiu, R. Liu, J. Shen, Y. Zhang, Microatoll-GAN: A generative adversarial network for microatoll detection in assisting monitoring Marine Fishery, in 2025 28th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design (CSCWD), (2025), 189-194.

[20] K. Li, K. Deb, Q. Zhang, S. Kwong, An evolutionary many-objective optimization algorithm based on dominance and decomposition, IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput., 19 (2015), 694-716.

[21] X. Feng, Y. He, Y. Wang, C. Wang, Z. Kuang, J. Ding, et al., ZS-SRT: An efficient zero-shot super-resolution training method for neural radiance fields, Neurocomputing, 590 (2024), 127714.

[22] X. Li, K. Li, G. Zhang, Z. Zhu, P. Wang, Z. Wang, et al., SREGS: Sparse-view gaussian radiance fields with geometric regularization and region exploration, Neural Networks, 191 (2025), 107820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2025.107820

[23] B. Mildenhall, P. P. Srinivasan, M. Tancik, J. T. Barron, R. Ramamoorthi, R. Ng, NeRF: Representing scenes as neural radiance fields for view synthesis, Commun. ACM, 65 (2021), 99-106.

[24] J. T. Barron, B. Mildenhall, M. Tancik, P. Hedman, R. Martin-Brualla, P. P. Srinivasan, Mip-NeRF: A multiscale representation for anti-aliasing neural radiance fields, in 2021 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), (2021), 5835-5844.

[25] B. Kerbl, G. Kopanas, T. Leimkuehler, G. Drettakis, 3D gaussian splatting for real-time radiance field rendering, ACM Trans. Graphics, 42 (2023), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3592455

[26] S. Fridovich-Keil, A. Yu, M. Tancik, Q. Chen, B. Recht, A. Kanazawa, Plenoxels: Radiance fields without neural networks, in 2022 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), (2022), 5491-5500.

[27] Q. Xu, Z. Xu, J. Philip, S. Bi, Z. Shu, K. Sunkavalli, et al., Point-NeRF: Point-based neural radiance fields, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, (2022), 5438-5448.

[28] T. Müller, A. Evans, C. Schied, A. Keller, Instant neural graphics primitives with a multiresolution hash encoding, ACM Trans. Graphics, 41 (2022), 102:1-102:15. https://doi.org/10.1145/3528223.3530184

[29] J. Liu, H. Cheng, S. Wang, F. Zhao, M. Li, NeRF dynamic scene reconstruction based on motion, semantic information and inpainting, Neurocomputing, 630 (2025), 129653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2025.129653

[30] R. Mishan, X. Fu, C. Hingu, P. Fajri, Analyzing frequency spectrum and total harmonic distortion for high switching frequency operation of GAN-based filter-less multilevel cascaded H-bridge inverter, e-Prime Adv. Electr. Eng. Electron. Energy, 11 (2025), 100906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2025.100906

[31] M. Hassan, F. Forest, O. Fink, M. Mielle, ThermoNeRF: A multi-modal neural radiance field for joint RGB-thermal novel view synthesis of building facades, Adv. Eng. Inf., 65 (2025), 103345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2025.103345

[32] I. Petrovska, B. Jutzi, Vision through obstacles-3D geometric reconstruction and evaluation of neural radiance fields (NeRFs), Remote Sens., 16 (2024), 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16071188

[33] Y. Zhou, Z. Zeng, A. Chen, X. Zhou, H. Ni, S. Zhang, et al., Evaluating modern approaches in 3D scene reconstruction: NeRF vs gaussian-based methods, in 2024 6th International Conference on Data-driven Optimization of Complex Systems (DOCS), (2024), 926-931.

[34] X. Wen, K. Sun, T. Chen, Z. Wang, J. She, Q. Zhao, et al., A NeRF-based technique combined depth-guided filtering and view enhanced module for large-scale scene reconstruction, Knowledge-Based Syst., 316 (2025), 113411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2025.113411

[35] K. Schwarz, Y. Liao, M. Niemeyer, A. Geiger, GRAF: Generative radiance fields for 3D-aware image synthesis, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 33 (2020), 20154-20166.

[36] E. R. Chan, M. Monteiro, P. Kellnhofer, J. Wu, G. Wetzstein, pi-GAN: Periodic implicit generative adversarial networks for 3D-aware image synthesis, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, (2021), 5799-5809.

[37] M. Aubry, D. Maturana, A. A. Efros, B. C. Russell, J. Sivic, Seeing 3D chairs: Exemplar part-based 2D-3D alignment using a large dataset of CAD models, in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, (2014), 3762-3769.

[38] Z. Liu, P. Luo, X. Wang, X. Tang, Deep learning face attributes in the wild, in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, (2015), 3730-3738.

[39] X. He, Y. Peng, Fine-grained visual-textual representation learning, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., 30 (2019), 520-531. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSVT.2019.2892809

[40] M. Heusel, H. Ramsauer, T. Unterthiner, B. Nessler, S. Hochreiter, GANs trained by a two time-scale update rule converge to a local nash equilibrium, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, (2017), 6626-6637.

[41] Y. Sun, J. Fan, MMD Graph kernel: Effective metric learning for graphs via maximum mean discrepancy, in International Conference on Representation Learning (eds. B. Kim, Y. Yue, S. Chaudhuri, K. Fragkiadaki, M. Khan, Y. Sun ), (2024), 22274-22307.

[42] M. G. Martini, Measuring objective image and video quality: On the relationship between SSIM and PSNR for DCT-based compressed images, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 74 (2025), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2025.3529045

[43] A. Gupta, J. Cao, C. Wang, J. Hu, S. Tulyakov, J. Ren, et al., LightSpeed: Light and fast neural light fields on mobile devices, in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 36 (2023), 31021-31037.

[44] L. Mescheder, A. Geiger, S. Nowozin, Which training methods for GANs do actually converge, in International Conference on Machine Learning, PMLR, (2018), 3481-3490.

[45] P. Henzler, N. J. Mitra, T. Ritschel, Escaping plato’s cave: 3D shape drom adversarial rendering, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision, (2019), 9984-9993.

[46] T. Nguyen-Phuoc, C. Li, L. Theis, C. Richardt, Y. L. Yang, HoloGAN: Unsupervised learning of 3D representations from natural images, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision, (2019), 7588-7597.

[47] W. Wang, H. L. Liu, K. C. Tan, A surrogate-assisted differential evolution algorithm for high-dimensional expensive optimization problems, IEEE Trans. Cybern., 53 (2023), 2685-2697. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2023.3281822