Hydrogen energy technologies for net-zero transitions: Progress, bottlenecks, and future pathways across production, storage, transport, and applications

Abstract

Hydrogen energy, distinguished by its high energy density, superior combustion calorific value, and environmental benignity, represents a highly promising low carbon energy carrier for the 21st century energy transition and serves as a critical technological pillar supporting global energy restructuring and the attainment of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality objectives. In this paper, we systematically reviewed the current landscape and core technological bottlenecks of the hydrogen industry, structured along its three fundamental value chain segments: hydrogen production, storage and transportation, and end use applications. Our findings indicated that water electrolysis constitutes a pivotal route for green and sustainable hydrogen generation. Moreover, alkaline water electrolysis attained a technology readiness level (TRL) of 9 and exhibited a hydrogen storage efficiency of approximately 60%–75%. Nevertheless, the intrinsic intermittency and fluctuations inherent in wind and solar power generation tended to induce performance degradation and shortened the operational lifespan of electrolysis units, thereby critically undermining the stability and economic viability of green hydrogen production. With respect to storage and transportation, the dominant high pressure gaseous hydrogen technology likewise reached TRL 9; however, it was constrained by a relatively low volumetric storage density (20–40 kg/m³) and notable safety concerns. Liquid hydrogen storage offered a substantially higher volumetric density, exceeding 60 kg/m³, albeit at the expense of considerable energy consumption and elevated costs during liquefaction and transportation. In contrast, solid state hydrogen storage combined enhanced safety with high volumetric densities in the range of 50–110 kg/m³, rendering it a primary focus of research and development efforts. In terms of applications, hydrogen was predominantly deployed in the transportation sector, industrial decarbonization of steelmaking and chemical production, and hydrogen based energy storage and power generation.

Keywords

hydrogen energy / hydrogen production / hydrogen storage and transportation / hydrogen energy application / green hydrogen

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