Development of a bio-inspired manufacturing framework for piezoelectric sensors

Abstract

This study proposes and experimentally validates a bio-inspired manufacturing strategy for piezoelectric sensors that emulates the modular and decoupled formation mechanisms observed during insect metamorphosis. This process enables independent fabrication and optimization of the mechanical structure, piezoelectric element, and electrode interconnects, followed by low-temperature heterogeneous integration through heat-activated bonding, thereby overcoming persistent challenges in the conventional fabrication processes of piezoelectric sensors. A series of characterizations confirmed that the laser micromachining of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) and polyimide (PI)-Cu films maintained material integrity, while adhesive bonding achieved uniform, defect-free interfaces. Proof-of-concept piezoelectric accelerometers fabricated via the proposed process exhibited a mean sensitivity of 3.17 pC/g, 5% bandwidth of 350 Hz, and intersample deviation below 5%, matching the performance of devices fabricated using classical microelectromechanical system (MEMS) techniques. Furthermore, wearable tests demonstrated the ability of the sensors to detect subcutaneous vocal-fold vibrations and distinguish between different spoken words, verifying their functional stability and application feasibility. The results establish a generalizable and low-temperature polymer-based manufacturing framework for creating complex, highly reliable piezoelectric sensors with direct implications for the future development of multimodal, flexible, and bio-integrated sensing systems.

Keywords

Bio-inspired manufacturing / Piezoelectric sensor / Laser micromachining / Heterogeneous integration / Wearable sensing

References

[1] Hake AE, Zhao C, Sung WKet al. . Design and experimental assessment of low-noise piezoelectric microelectromechanical systems vibration sensors. IEEE Sens J. 2021, 21: 17703-17711.

[2] Gong X, Kuo YC, Zhou Get al. . An aerosol deposition based MEMS piezoelectric accelerometer for low noise measurement. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2023, 9: 23.

[3] Zhang Z, Zhang L, Wu Z et al (2023) A high-sensitivity MEMS accelerometer using a Sc0.8Al0.2N-based four beam structure. Micromachines 14:1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14051069

[4] Lv T, Pelenovich VO, Xu Cet al. . Fabrication and characterization of high-temperature AlN thick-film piezoelectric accelerometer. Ceram Int. 2024, 5047008-47016.

[5] Liu J, Tan H, Zhou Xet al. . Piezoelectric thin films and their applications in MEMS: a review. J Appl Phys. 2025, 137. 020702

[6] Ho YC, Li CY, Chu SYet al. . Effects of TiO₂ layer and post-heat treatment on the crack-free and improved electric properties of sol-gel derived PZT-based films for MEMS applications. Mater Sci Eng B. 2024, 307. 117467

[7] Kumar A, Varghese A, Sharma Aet al. . Recent development and futuristic applications of MEMS based piezoelectric microphones. Sens Actuators A. 2022, 347. 113887

[8] Yang C, Hu B, Lu Let al. . A miniaturized piezoelectric MEMS accelerometer with polygon topological cantilever structure. Micromachines. 2022, 13: 1608.

[9] Yang J, Zhang M, He Yet al. . A resonant z-axis aluminum nitride thin-film piezoelectric MEMS accelerometer. Micromachines. 2019, 10589.

[10] Li CY, Chen ZH, Kao HYet al. . Design and development of a low-power wireless MEMS lead-free piezoelectric accelerometer system. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas. 2023, 721-11.

[11] Rashmi KR, Rao AS, Jayarama Aet al. . Piezoelectric P(VDF-TrFE) micro cantilevers and beams for low frequency vibration sensors and energy harvesters. Sens Actuators A. 2019, 295: 574-585.

[12] Chauhan SS, Bhatt UM, Gautam Pet al. . Fabrication and modeling of β-phase PVDF-TrFE based flexible piezoelectric energy harvester. Sens Actuators A. 2020, 304. 111879

[13] McGinn CK, Kam KA, Laurila MMet al. . Formulation, printing, and poling method for piezoelectric films based on PVDF-TrFE. J Appl Phys. 2020, 128. 225304

[14] Hujer J, Dančová P, Kořínek Tet al. . Photolithographically home-made PVDF sensor for cavitation impact load measurement. Processes. 2021, 9: 1761.

[15] María N, Le Goupil F, Cavallo Det al. . Effect of the TrFE content on the crystallization and SSA thermal fractionation of P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers. Int J Mol Sci. 2022, 2310365.

[16] Bai X, Li H, Chu Xet al. . The tuning of crystallization behavior of ferroelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene). J Polym Sci. 2024, 621742-1770.

[17] Edwards TR, Shankar R, Smith PGHet al. . β-phase crystallinity, printability, and piezoelectric characteristics of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)/cyclopentyl-polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (Cp-POSS) melt-compounded blends. ACS Appl Polymer Mater. 2024, 6: 5803-5813.

[18] Rajala S, Schouten M, Krijnen Get al. . High bending-mode sensitivity of printed piezoelectric poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) sensors. ACS Omega. 2018, 3: 8067-8073.

[19] Dinesh Kumar A, Arunachalam N, Jayaganthan R (2024) Effect of build orientation on all additively manufactured polyvinylidene fluoride with electrical poling for strain sensing and energy-harvesting application. P I Mech Eng E-J Pro 0:09544089241289069. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544089241289069

[20] Ikei A, Wissman J, Sampath Ket al. . Tunable in situ 3D-printed PVDF-TrFE piezoelectric arrays. Sensors. 2021, 21: 5032.

[21] Han P, Tofangchi A, Carr Det al. . Enhancing the piezoelectric properties of 3D printed PVDF using concurrent torsional shear strain. Polymers. 2023, 154204.

[22] Islam MN, Rupom RH, Adhikari PRet al. . Boosting piezoelectricity by 3D printing PVDF-MoS₂ composite as a conformal and high-sensitivity piezoelectric sensor. Adv Func Mater. 2023, 332302946.

[23] Marandi M, Tarbutton J (2019) Additive manufacturing of single- and double-layer piezoelectric PVDF-TrFE copolymer sensors. Procedia Manuf 34:666–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.194

[24] Tao R, Shi J, Rafiee Met al. . Fused filament fabrication of PVDF films for piezoelectric sensing and energy harvesting applications. Mater Adv. 2022, 34851-4860.

[25] Fan J, Deneke N, Xu Set al. . Electric poling-assisted additive manufacturing technique for piezoelectric active poly(vinylidene fluoride) films: towards fully three-dimensional printed functional materials. Addit Manuf. 2022, 60. 103248

[26] White A, Little I, Artyuk Aet al. . On-demand fabrication of piezoelectric sensors for in-space structural health monitoring. Smart Mater Struct. 2024, 33. 055053

[27] Ibtehaj K, Hj Jumali MH, Al-Bati S. A novel facile preparation method of self-polarized poly(vinylidene fluorides) nanofiber for high-performance piezoelectric nanogenerator. Polymer. 2020, 208. 122956

[28] Yao H, Xia Z, Wang Jet al. . Porous, self-polarized ferroelectric polymer films exhibiting behavior reminiscent of morphotropic phase boundary induced by size-dependent interface effect for self-powered sensing. ACS Nano. 2024, 18: 9470-9485.

[29] Szewczyk PK, Gradys A, Kim SKet al. . Enhanced piezoelectricity of electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride fibers for energy harvesting. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020, 12: 13575-13583.

[30] Ghafari E, Lu N. Self-polarized electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) nanofiber for sensing applications. Compos B Eng. 2019, 160: 1-9.

[31] Yadav P, Raju TD, Badhulika S. Self-poled hBN-PVDF nanofiber mat-based low-cost, ultrahigh-performance piezoelectric nanogenerator for biomechanical energy harvesting. ACS Appl Electron Mater. 2020, 2: 1970-1980.

[32] Costa CM, Cardoso VF, Martins Pet al. . Smart and multifunctional materials based on electroactive poly(vinylidene fluoride): recent advances and opportunities in sensors, actuators, energy, environmental, and biomedical applications. Chem Rev. 2023, 123: 11392-11487.

[33] Wu Y, Du X, Gao Ret al. . Self-polarization of PVDF film triggered by hydrophilic treatment for pyroelectric sensor with ultra-low piezoelectric noise. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2019, 14: 72.

[34] Shepelin NA, Sherrell PC, Skountzos ENet al. . Interfacial piezoelectric polarization locking in printable Ti3C2T_x MXene-fluoropolymer composites. Nat Commun. 2021, 123171.

[35] Yuan X, Gao X, Shen Xet al. . A 3D-printed, alternatively tilt-polarized PVDF-TrFE polymer with enhanced piezoelectric effect for self-powered sensor application. Nano Energy. 2021, 85. 105985

[36] Pei H, Xie Y, Xiong Yet al. . A novel polarization-free 3D printing strategy for fabrication of poly (vinylidene fluoride) based nanocomposite piezoelectric energy harvester. Compos B Eng. 2021, 225. 109312

[37] Polcawich RG, Pulskamp JS (2011) Additive processes for piezoelectric materials: piezoelectric MEMS. In: Ghodssi R, Lin P (eds) MEMS materials and processes handbook. Springer, Boston, MA. pp:273–353. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-47318-5_5

[38] Ge C, Cretu E. Polymeric piezoelectric accelerometers with high sensitivity, broad bandwidth, and low noise density for organic electronics and wearable microsystems. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2024, 1061.

[39] Jiang C, Liu X, Yu Fet al. . High-temperature vibration sensor based on Ba₂TiSi₂O₈ piezoelectric crystal with ultra-stable sensing performance up to 650 °C. IEEE Trans Industr Electron. 2021, 6812850-12859.

[40] Liu Y, Hu B, Cai Yet al. . A novel tri-axial piezoelectric MEMS accelerometer with folded beams. Sensors. 2021, 21: 453.

[41] Levinzon FA. Fundamental noise limit of piezoelectric accelerometer. IEEE Sens J. 2004, 4108-111.

[42] Li CY, Chen ZH, Kao HYet al. . Design and development of a low-power wireless MEMS lead-free piezoelectric accelerometer system. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas. 2023, 72: 11

[43] Berg M, Fuchs M, Wirkner Ket al. . The speaking voice in the general population: normative data and associations to sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. J Voice. 2017, 31257.e13-257.e24.

[44] Mendoza E, Valencia N, Muñoz Jet al. . Differences in voice quality between men and women: use of the long-term average spectrum (LTAS). J Voice. 1996, 10: 59-66.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Shanghai University and Periodicals Agency of Shanghai University and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature